Evolutionary theories. The Belgian George Lemaitre proposed the idea that about 20, 000 million years ago all the matter in the universe—enough, he estimated, to make up a hundred thousand million galaxies—was all concentrated in one small mass, which he called the “primeval atom“. This primeval atom exploded for some reasons, sending its matter out in all directions, and as the expansion slowed down, a steady state resulted, at which time the galaxies formed. Something then upset the balance and the universe started expanding again, and this is the state in which the universe is now. There are variations on this theory: it may be that there was no steady state. However, Basically, evolutionary theories take it that the universe was formed in one place at one point in time and has been expanding ever since. Will the universe continue to expand? It may be that the universe will continue to expand for ever, But some astronomers believe that the expansion will slow down and finally stop. Thereafter the universe will start to contract until all the matter in it is once again concentrated at one point. Possibly the universe may oscillate for ever in this fashion, expanding to its maximum and then contracting over again. The steady-state theory. Developed at Cambridge by Hoyle, Gold and Bodi, the steady-state theory maintains that the universe as a whole has always looked the same and always will. As the galaxies expand away from each other, new material is formed in some ways between the galaxies and makes up new galaxies to take place of those which have receded. Thus the general distribution of galaxies remains the same. How matter could be formed in this way is hard to see, But no harder than seeing why it should all form in one place at one time. How can we decide which of these theories is closer to the truth? The method is in principle quite simple. Since the very distant galaxies are thousands of millions of light years away, then we are seeing them as they were thousands of millions of years ago. If the evolutionary theory is correct, the galaxies were closer together in the past than they are now, and so distant galaxies ought to appear to be closer together than nearer ones. According to the steady-state theory there should be no difference. The evidence seems to suggest that there is a difference, that the galaxies were closer together than they are now, and so the evolutionary theory is partially confirmed and the steady-state theory—in its original form at least— must be rejected.

What does the speaker suggest that the students should do during the term?Right, everybody. Welcome to Central College library services. My name’s Kathy Jenkins. I’ll give you a brief introduction to the library. We have a well-stocked bank of resources which are located in three main places: the library itself, with books and periodicals;the self-access language centre, with audio and video material;and the micro-computer lab. I’ll start with the micro-computer lab, or micro-lab as we call it. It is fitted with 24 personal computers. If you are a member of the library, you may borrow CALL discs in French, German, Italian, Spanish and Russian as well as English. By the way, CALL stands for computer aided language learning; C-A-double L, “ CALL“ , for short. You may also borrow a range of word processing and desktop publishing packages. All disks are, of course, strictly for use in the micro-lab only. If you wish to print anything you should use one of the five machines around the outside of the room. Four are connected to dot matrix printers, one is connected to the laser printer. If you want a better quality printout from the laser printer, come and see me or any of the library staff. Dot-matrix printouts are free but there is a charge for using the laser printer. There is always a queue to get to the terminals towards the end of term. Come in and get to know how to use the computers early in the term and use them regularly, rather than just before exams and essay deadlines, in order to avoid delay or disappointment. Training sessions are held on a regular basis, on the first and third Thursday of each month, and are free to full-time students of the college. See you there. Now, any questions? Consult with her frequently. Use the computer regularly. Occupy the computer early. Wait for one’s turn patiently.

What is the main topic of this talk?For the past few weeks we’ve been discussing national energy conservation alternatives for the future. Today I’m going to talk about what one community is presently doing to conserve energy. The people of Davis, California have succeeded in cutting their energy consumption by one third since 1973. The first energy saving action that was taken in the early 70 ’s was the Legislation of Brick Building Codes. All new houses in Davis must have the proper heat insulation so that heat will not escape unnecessarily during the winter. New houses must also face north or south so that they will not be overheated by the sun in the summer. The law has had a definite effect. Since 1976 there has been a 50 percent savings in the amount of natural gas and electricity used in heating and air-conditioning. There were other energy saving features about Davis: buses partially supported by the city, transporting university students throughout the area. There are 24 miles of bicycle paths and today there are twice as many bicycles as cars in the city. By reducing the available parking space, the city council has succeeded in reducing the number of cars in the city every day. Another benefit of reduced parking is the greater number of small cars. People are saving gas because they are preferring not to drive, or because they are driving fuel-economic cars. Davis, California has become an energy-saving model for other cities. Time is up for today. Next week we’ll return to our regular topic of national energy alternatives. Bicycles and cars. Building codes. Energy conservation. New housing construction.

What is your responsibility when you, as a school principal, get the teacher’s report?Imagine you are a high school principal. A teacher bursts breathlessly into your office. “There’s a fist fight in the dining-room, “she gasps. The responsibility is yours to stop the fight. How do you meet it?(1)Perhaps you, as a youngster, took part in fights and your present-day ties with students are warm and strong. You can stop the fight because your prestige is high among them.(2)You have a plan prepared. Other schools have been disrupted so you have already planned a way to stop any fight.(3)You are totally confident of your ability in a crisis. You are ready to stride into the lunchroom and take charge without a single qualm. Stopping the fight will be easy.(4)You fervently wish that you could delegate the job since you know that you’re not a talented peacemaker. You wish you could return to the job of planning for the school’s need ten years hence. One of these four reactions would be the first you’d feel, but only one— not two or three of them, say three psychologists. These psychologists—Dr. Harriet Mann, Dr. Humphrey Osmond and Miriam Siegler—have come up with a scheme for sorting people regardless of their education, age or situation. The concept is based on the premise that all people have a basic way of seeing time. Each of us is predisposed to see all events from time vantage point. Either it reminds you of the past(past-oriented), how the event fits into today, yesterday, and tomorrow(time line), what it is today(present), or how it will develop(future). The three began working in 1968 when Dr. Mann and Mrs. Siegler were assistants to Dr. Osmond, director, at the Bureau of Research, New Jersey Neuro-Psychiatric Institute in Princeton. Dr. Osmond is currently devising ways to make empirical studies of the theory and Dr. Mann is in Gam-bridge, Massachusetts, writing a book on the Worlds of Time. Their takeoff point was an interest in observations made by Swiss psychologist Carl Gustav Jung, who described in the 1920s the temperamental differences of four psychological types. Jung is known as the founder of analytic psychology. Since Jung’s work in 1921, however, no one had conceived of a theoretical framework that would account for the four types. Without such a framework, there was no possibility of substantiating that people of different types experience the world very differently. Time and space are the touchstones in the system. Each person, after all, uses his time somehow and exists within and acts upon the space around him. Dr. Mann, and company propose that certain traits are shared by persons falling in each of the four categories. The first type, the past type, sees time as being circular. For him, the past crops up in the present and then returns to the past as a memory. He enjoys collecting souvenirs and keeping diaries. He tells stories about Great Aunt Hattie and always remembers your birthday. Past types are pegged by this system as emotional people who see the world in a highly subjective way. For instance, School Principal I(past type)could identify with the fight and know how to handle it because of some past experience—whether it be similar fights as a child himself or ones previously dealt with as the school principal. In addition, past types usually follow strict moral codes and often are valued more for what they are than for what they do. This quality itself—because it lends authoritarian strength to one who possesses it—might cause the students to quit fighting. Past types often have been found to be skillful at assessing the exact emotional tenor of an event and are adept at influencing others’ emotions, according to the Mann group. Research reveals that many past-oriented people are flexible in early years when they do not have much of a personal past to draw upon. However , the dash of youth is often replaced by a need for stability and usually is rooted by age thirty-five or so. From this age onward, they are conservatives. “They need to see things in the ways which were popular, fashionable and appropriate in their youth days, “explains Dr. Mann. This applies, with exceptions of course, to personal taste in clothing fashions, music appreciation, and other social and environmental factors. In short, the past type often clings to the well-established way with nostalgic fervor. Also, the past type finds it difficult to be punctual since the on-going feeling is more important than his next task. The goal of these people is to “ develop a language of the heart, rather than of the mind. To develop those techniques which make memories live, and to dignify any act of remembrance;those are the essential concerns of past-oriented types, “explain the authors in Journal of Analytical Psychology.

At dawn one morning in early May, Sean Cosgrove is stashing piles of maps, notes and photocopied documents in his gym bag before heading for West Milford High, a rural school in northernmost New Jersey. On his 30-minute commute, the young former investment banker tries to dream up new ways of lifting the monumentally forgettable Mexican War off the textbook page and into his students’ imaginations. Can he invoke the storied memories of Robert E. Lee, who cut his first military exploits on the plains of Veracuz—or will he be met with thundering responses of “Who’s Lee“ ? Should he raise James K. Polk out of the mystic chords of memory, and hope, for a nanosecond, that the kids will care about the first U. S. president who stepped aside because he’d accomplished everything he wanted? Let’s think some more. Well, there’s always the Alamo. And hey, isn’t that the teachers’ parking lot up a-head? It’s never an easy task. These big kids in big jeans and ball caps, come to his history classes believing that history is about as useful as Latin. Most are either unaware or unimpressed that the area’s iron forges once produced artillery cannon for George Washington’s army. Their sense of history orbits more narrowly around last month’s adventures on “Shop Rite Strip“ , the students’ nickname for downtown West Milford, once a factory town, now a Magnet for middle-class vacationers. Cosgrove looks uncommonly glum as he thumbs through a stack of exams in the teachers’ lounge. “I can’t believe anyone in my class could think John Brown was the governor of Massachusetts, “ moans Cosgrove, 28, pointing to one student’s test paper. He had to be sleeping for days on end. The same morning, students in his college bound class could name only one U. S. Supreme Court justice—Clarence Thomas. All his wit, energy and beyond-the-textbook research can’t completely reverse the students’ poor preparation in history, their lack of general knowledge, their numbness to the outside world. It’s the bane of history teachers at every level. When University of Vermont professor James Loewen asked his senior social-science majors who fought in the Vietnam War, 22 percent answered North and South Korea. Don’t these kids even go to the movies?

In January 1995, the world witnessed the emergence of a new international economic order with the launching of the World Trade Organization. The WTO, which succeeds the GATT, is expected to strengthen the world trading system and to be more effective than the GATT in governing international trade in goods and services in many aspects. First, trade liberalization all over the world is expected to increase via the dramatic reductions in trade barriers to which the members of the WTO are committed. Under the WTO, members are required to reduce their tariff and non-tariffs on manufacturing goods. In addition, protecting domestic agricultural sectors from foreign competition will become awfully difficult in the new WTO system. Second, rules and regulations governing international trade will be more strongly enforced. Under the old system of the GATT, there were many cases where trade measures, such as anti-dumping and countervailing duties, were intentionally used solely for protectionist reasons. The WTO’s strengthened rules and regulations will significantly reduce the abusing of such trade measures by its member countries. The WTO is also equipped with an improved dispute settlement mechanism. Accordingly, we expect to see a more effective resolution of trade disputes among the member countries in this new trade environment. Third, new multilateral rules have been established to cover areas which the GATT did not address, such as international trade in services and the protection of intellectual property rights. There still remain a number of problems that need to be resolved before international trade in services can be completely liberalized, and newly-developed ideas or technologies are fairly compensated. However, just the establishment of multilateral rules in these new areas is a distinguished contribution to the progress toward a global free trade system. Along with the launching of the WTO, this new era in world trade is characterized by a change in the structure of the world economy. Today, a world-wide market for goods and services is rapidly replacing a world economy composed of relatively isolated national markets. Domestic financial markets have been integrated into a truly global system, and the multinational corporation is becoming a principal mechanism for allocating investment capital and determining the location of production sites throughout much of the world.

A = Rotherhithe B = Barnes C = Willesden D = King’ s Cross Which city... used to have lot of problems such as drugs, street crime, etc. ? 【P1】______ has the unpopular style of architecture? 【P2】______ has the most expensive properties? 【P3】______ offers big out-fashioned houses at lower price? 【P4】______ is located in a quiet residential area? 【P5】______ saw a big increase in price last year? 【P6】______ will build a lot of new facilities? 【P7】______ is estimated to be a good investment? 【P8】______ encourages night-life culture for young people? 【P9】______ creates energetic multi-cultural atmosphere? 【P10】______ A Rotherhithe Rotherhithe may be most famous for its congested tunnel but many young buyers are warming to its riverside charms. It is still much cheaper than its waterside neighbors. The housing stock is predominately 1980s flats, many arranged in cul-de-sacs(死胡同)and closes around Surrey Quays Road. The unpopular architecture has led to the area being called the Milton Keynes of London but properties are spacious and unfashionable style has kept prices down. Paul Mitchell, of estate agents Alex Neil, says, “ There is precious little period property, but you will get far more for your money here than a Victorian house with lots of original features down the road in Bermondsey. “ Surry Quays shopping center provides all the amenities of a high street but the area is lacking in fun. However, Southwark Council is in talks to develop the “ night time economy“ which could well lead to an increase in bars and restaurants to cater for the growing number of young professional residents. “ It is possible to get a good three-bedroom house in Rotherhithe for 280, 000, “ says Sumine Jordaan-Rob-inson, of agents Burwood Marsh , “ About eight minutes; walk from the Jubilee line which will have you in Bond street in 15 minutes. There are not that many areas in London where that is possible. “ B Barnes Barnes sits just across the river from Hammersmith in southwest London, but it could not be more different from the noise and bustle of the opposite bank. It has been called one of the last true London “villages“ with happy residents keeping its old school charms quiet from nosey outsiders and potential developers. Being by the river and predominately residential gives Barnes an attractively lazy vibe. It has a traditional village green complete with idyllic duck pond and quaint pub. The high street is about as far from the Pound Shop and Primark ambience of its neighbors as is possible. But buying into Barnes is not cheap. “ Family houses are snapped up incredibly quickly, “ claims Chris Carney, sales negotiator at Boileaus estate agents. “It is very hard to get properties of this size, with outside space so close to London, which is why they are expensive. Large detached Victorian houses on the two main roads, Castlenau and Lonsdale, normally have between five and seven bedrooms, gardens of 120 ft and off street parking. These sell for anything between ￡ 2 million and ￡ 5 million. By the village green there are rows of immaculate terraced house on a number of streets that run off Church and Station roads, and four bedroom houses of this kind sell for around ￡ 1 million. C Willesden Green Willesden Green has both suffered and benefited from its famous neighbors. Despite its growing popularity, the area remains interesting and multicultural, injecting a little bit of soul into what could otherwise become just another yuppie backwater. “ Willesden Green has a diverse range of properties from 1930s semi-detached houses to large Victorian properties and new-builds which attract all kinds of buyers, “ says Richard Chiti, sales manager at estate agents Ellis and Co. “The roads bordering West Hampstead are popular, as they are wide, tree lined streets with sizeable family houses. Properties in and around Dobree Road, which lead down to Kensal Rise, are also in high demand. “ Estate agents and residents agree that the area used to be regarded as dangerous and undesirable, but this has changed over the last decade. It’ s popular because it is still affordable, although prices have rocketed over the last year. D King’ s Cross King’ s Cross used to be renowned for problems including drugs, prostitution and street crime but a ￡ 2 billion regeneration programme should help the area lose its seedy reputation. The project includes a new Eurostar terminal opening this year and a spruced-up tube station, alongside hundreds of new homes, offices and leisure facilities set to be completed in 2015. Such development has had a predictable effect on house prices. “ There are a lot more amenities now, such as supermarkets, cafes and bars and the issue people used to have with safety a few years ago has disappeared. “ By the canal basin, new build flats and luxury ware house conversions form the bulk of property, and at the top end of the market there are stunning penthouses available with views across London. Much of the new development is centered on the back of the station, off York way, and flats are being sold to eager buyers off plan. The older properties are mainly mid-Victorian terraces around Caledonian Road and the streets heading towards Angel , and ex-local authority blocks where it is possible to pick up a two-bedroom refurbished flat for under ￡ 250, 000. Smith adds, “ Investment-wise, King’ s Cross is a good bet. There is a big rental market here and prices will go up. There are still cheaper properties available, one to two bedroom flats in Victorian conversions, or ex-council properties. But people are holding on to them for dear life in the hope they will go up in value. If you find one, it is worth investing in. “

According to the woman, what governs the clothes we wear?M: So you really believe that clothes carry a kind of message for other people and that what we put on is in some way a reflection of what we feel? W: Oh yes, very much so. Now people are beginning to take seriously the i-dea of a kind of psychology of clothing, to believe that there is not just individual taste in our clothes but also a thinking behind what we wear which is trying to express something we may not even be aware of ourselves. M: But surely this has always been the case. We all dress up when we want to impress someone, such as for a job interview with a prospective employer; we then make an effort and put on something smart. W: True, but that’s a conscious act. What I am talking about is more of a subconscious thing. Take for example the student who is away from home at college or university: if he tends to wrap himself up more than the others, this is because he is probably feeling homesick. Similarly, a general feeling of insecurity can sometimes take the form of overdressing in warmer clothes than necessary. M: Can you give any other examples? W: Yes. I think people who are sociable and outgoing tend to dress in an extroverted way, preferring brighter or more dazzling colors yellows, bright reds, and so on. In the same way, what might be seen as a parallel with the animal kingdom, aggressive clothes might indicate an aggressive personality or attitude to life. Think about the threat displays used by animals when they want to warn off opponents. M: Do you think the care or lack of it over the way we actually wear our clothes has anything to tell us? W: Yes, indeed. The length, for example, of a man’s trousers speaks volumes about his awareness of his own image. Or, if his trousers are too short or hanging loosely, this probably means he’s absorbed by other things. A desire to express oneself and show one’s wealth. Individual taste and love for beauty. Love for beauty and a desire to impress other people. Individual taste and a desire to express oneself.

The most obvious purpose of advertising is to inform the consumer of available products or services. The second【C1】______is to sell the product. The second purpose might be more important to the manufacturers than the【C2】______. The manufacturers go beyond only telling consumers about their products. They also try to persuade customers to buy the【C3】______by creating a desire【C4】______it. Because of advertisement, consumers think that they want something that they do not need. After buying something, the purchaser cannot always explain why it was【C5】______. Even【C6】______the purchaser probably does not know why he or she bought something, the manufacturers【C7】______. Manufacturers have analyzed the business of【C8】______and buying. They know all the different motives that influence a consumer’ s purchase—some rational and【C9】______emotional. Furthermore, they take advantage of this【C10】______. Why【C11】______so many products displayed at the checkout counters in grocery stores? The store management has some good【C12】______. By the time the customer is【C13】______to pay for a purchase, he or she has already made rational, thought-out decisions【C14】______what he or she needs and wants to buy. The【C15】______feels that he or she has done a good job of choosing the items. The shopper is especially vulnerable at this point. The【C16】______of candy, chewing gum, and magazines are very attractive. They persuade the purchaser to buy something for emotional, not【C17】______motives. For example, the customer neither needs nor plans to buy candy, but while the customer is standing, waiting to pay money, he or she may suddenly decide to buy【C18】______. This is exactly【C19】______the store and the manufacturer hope that the customer will【C20】______. The customer follows his or her plan.

With unfamiliar human beings, when we acknowledge their humanness, we must avoid staring at them, and yet we must also avoid ignoring them. To make them into people rather than objects, we use a deliberate and polite inattention. We look at them long enough to, make it quite clear that we see them, and then we immediately look a-way. 【R1】______ The important thing in such an exchange is that we do not catch the eye of one whom we are recognizing as a person. We look at him without locking glances, and then we immediately look away. Recognition is not permitted. 【R2】______ If you pass someone in the street, you may eye the oncoming person until you are about eight feet apart, then you must look away as you pass. Before the eight-foot distance is reached, each will signal in which direction he will pass. This is done with a brief look in that direction. Each will veer slightly and the passing is done smoothly. 【R3】______ To strengthen this signal, you look directly at the other’ s face before looking away. 【R4】______ It becomes impossible to discover just what they are doing. Are they looking at you too long, too intently? Are they looking at you at all? The person wearing the glasses feels protected and assumes that he can stare without being noticed in his staring. However, this is a self-deception. To the other person, dark glasses seem to indicate that the wearer is always staring at him. We often use this look-away technique when we meet famous people. We want to assure them we are respecting their privacy and that we would not dream of staring at them. The same is true of the crippled or physically handicapped. We look brief and then look away before the stare can be said to be a stare. 【R5】______ Of course, the opposite is also true. If we wish to put a person down, we may do so by staring longer than is acceptably polite. Instead of dropping our gazes when we lock glances, we continue to stare. The person who disapproves of interracial marriages or dating will stare rudely at the interracial couple. If he dislikes long hair, short dresses, or beards, he may show it with a longer-than-acceptable stare. A. There are different formulas for the exchange of glances depending on where the meeting takes place. B. In the subway or bus where long rides in very close circumstances are a necessity, we may be hard put to find some way of not staring. We sneak glances, but look away before our eyes can lock. If we look with an unfocused glance that misses the eyes and settles on the head, the mouth, the body for any place but the eyes is an acceptable looking spot for the unfocused glance. C. Actually in this way we are saying, in body language, “I know you are there, “ and a moment later we add, “But I would not dream of intruding on your privacy. D. It is the technique we use for any unusual situation where too long a stare would be embarrassing. When we see an interracial couple, we also use this technique. We might use it when we see a man with an unusual beard, with extra longhair, with outlandish clothes, or a girl with a minimal miniskirt may attract this look-and-away. E. For this passing encounter Dr. Erving Goffman in behavior in public places says that the quick look and the lowering of the eyes is body language for, “I trust you. I am not afraid of you. F. Sometimes the rules are hard to follow, particularly if one of the two people wears dark glasses.

All international chain schools teach many different languages.Hello, everyone. Today I will introduce you the learning chains in Britain. Here the chains refer to schools linked together as part of a group. They can offer students many practical advantages. When people are asked to name a language school, more often than not, they think of one of the large international chains of schools. Some are vast language teaching organizations with schools in many different countries and may teach just one language. One of the main strengths of these chains is the fact that their name is familiar to people all over the world. This can be a big advantage in the confusing world of language learning. Most students are bewildered by the large choice of schools and courses on offer, both at home and abroad, and so many prefer to choose a school which has a familiar name and an established reputation. Chain schools know this, and part of their success is due to effective marketing and advertising, which helps to keep their name well-known. But chain schools should not be dismissed by serious students just because they use clever marketing techniques. They have other important strengthens which can provide advantages to students. A school is only as good as its teachers and facilities, and many chains offer very high standards in both. More chains require that their teachers have internationally recognized qualifications and a maximum amount of teaching experience. It is important for chains to maintain these standards at all schools, because the reputation of the whole chain can be affected if one school performs badly. Students also benefit from the standardized structure of chains. Most chains use the same text books in all their schools, and often they produce their own coursework materials. They also organize their courses in the same way which means that starting dates and course lengths are usually the same at all schools. For students, one of the main advantages of this standardized structure is simplicity. If you cannot decide whether to study in the U. S. or Britain, for example, most chains allow students to start their language course at one school and continue at another, so they can experience different regions or different countries, as part of the same study trip. Chain schools tend to be larger than single center schools, which can also have advantages for students. With larger numbers of students, school administrators can achieve a better mixture of nationalities in classrooms. This means that students can avoid being with other students who speak their language. This gives them the chance to meet students from other countries, and to practice their English with them. Some chains offer students a very simple booking and enrolment procedure which is also useful. Application forms and enrolment procedures are the same for all schools, so students need only supply their details once. Students may find that they can book their course abroad through a representative of a chain school in their own town or city. Other chains offer a centralized booking facility, so students only have to contact one center to make a booking anywhere in the world. Chain schools often operate in different locations, whereas a single school is likely to be based permanently in one building. Many chain schools operate temporary schools, particularly during the summer holidays. In Britain, they often use secondary school premises which are empty during the school holidays. Studying English in an English-speaking country is the most effective way to learn the language, but for many students this is only one stage of their learning career. Most students start learning English in their own country and they will probably want to continue learning once they return from their study trip. An international chain can usually offer you a continuous learning program from one country to the next. Language school chains can offer students high standards of teaching based on widespread experience. For students it can be a useful way of making learning more flexible. TRUE FALSE

Some people claim that staying in a place all one’ s life is good for one’ s growth, while others disagree with the view, and they prefer changing the place. Write an article to express your point of view on this topic.

What do both theories assume to be true?

According to Lemaitre, the separate galaxies formed______.

What is the basic difference between the two classes of theories?

According to Hoyle and his friends at Cambridge, ______.

We see distant galaxies as they were long, long ago because______.