Where can the expression “lame duck“ be heard?The expression, “lame duck“, can be heard in almost any American town or city, especially where people discuss politics. Most often, they use it to describe a politician who has come to the end of his power. There are a number of ideas as to where “lame duck“ came from, though the picture of a lame duck is clear enough: a duck that has had its wings cut, or its feet injured, and can no longer walk like a healthy one. The term seems to have come into the American language after the Civil War of 1861-1865. One explanation is that it came from the language of hunters who felt that it was foolish to waste powder or time on a dead duck. And a lame duck is close to being a dead duck. Another explanation, however, is that the expression came from England. There it was used to describe a man who lost all his money and could not pay his debts. He could do nothing but walk like a lame duck. And people showed little mercy for the poor fellow. But in the United States people took the phrase to describe congressman who failed to get re-elected but still had a little time left in office. Later, the expression was used in a broader sense, generally describing any man whose days of power were coming to an end. It has often been used to describe the position of an American president in the last two years or so of his second term. It is a difficult time for him, when Congress is ready to oppose him at every turn. Only among hunters. Among primary school pupils. Among beautiful ladies. Among people who are discussing politics.

What does the speaker suggest that the students should do during the term?Right, everybody. Welcome to Central College library services. My name’s Kathy Jenkins. I’ll give you a brief introduction to the library. We have a well-stocked bank of resources which are located in three main places: the library itself, with books and periodicals;the self-access language centre, with audio and video material;and the micro-computer lab. I’ll start with the micro-computer lab, or micro-lab as we call it. It is fitted with 24 personal computers. If you are a member of the library, you may borrow CALL discs in French, German, Italian, Spanish and Russian as well as English. By the way, CALL stands for computer aided language learning; C-A-double L, “ CALL“ , for short. You may also borrow a range of word processing and desktop publishing packages. All disks are, of course, strictly for use in the micro-lab only. If you wish to print anything you should use one of the five machines around the outside of the room. Four are connected to dot matrix printers, one is connected to the laser printer. If you want a better quality printout from the laser printer, come and see me or any of the library staff. Dot-matrix printouts are free but there is a charge for using the laser printer. There is always a queue to get to the terminals towards the end of term. Come in and get to know how to use the computers early in the term and use them regularly, rather than just before exams and essay deadlines, in order to avoid delay or disappointment. Training sessions are held on a regular basis, on the first and third Thursday of each month, and are free to full-time students of the college. See you there. Now, any questions? Consult with her frequently. Use the computer regularly. Occupy the computer early. Wait for one’s turn patiently.

According to the woman, what governs the clothes we wear?M: So you really believe that clothes carry a kind of message for other people and that what we put on is in some way a reflection of what we feel? W: Oh yes, very much so. Now people are beginning to take seriously the i-dea of a kind of psychology of clothing, to believe that there is not just individual taste in our clothes but also a thinking behind what we wear which is trying to express something we may not even be aware of ourselves. M: But surely this has always been the case. We all dress up when we want to impress someone, such as for a job interview with a prospective employer; we then make an effort and put on something smart. W: True, but that’s a conscious act. What I am talking about is more of a subconscious thing. Take for example the student who is away from home at college or university: if he tends to wrap himself up more than the others, this is because he is probably feeling homesick. Similarly, a general feeling of insecurity can sometimes take the form of overdressing in warmer clothes than necessary. M: Can you give any other examples? W: Yes. I think people who are sociable and outgoing tend to dress in an extroverted way, preferring brighter or more dazzling colors yellows, bright reds, and so on. In the same way, what might be seen as a parallel with the animal kingdom, aggressive clothes might indicate an aggressive personality or attitude to life. Think about the threat displays used by animals when they want to warn off opponents. M: Do you think the care or lack of it over the way we actually wear our clothes has anything to tell us? W: Yes, indeed. The length, for example, of a man’s trousers speaks volumes about his awareness of his own image. Or, if his trousers are too short or hanging loosely, this probably means he’s absorbed by other things. A desire to express oneself and show one’s wealth. Individual taste and love for beauty. Love for beauty and a desire to impress other people. Individual taste and a desire to express oneself.

In a three-month period last year, two Brooklynites had to be cut out of their apartments and carried to hospital on stretchers designed for transporting small whales. The National Association to Advance Fat Acceptance(NAAFA)argues that it was not their combined 900kg bulk that made them ill. Obesity, according to NAAFA, is not bad for you. And, even if it was, there is nothing to be done about it, because genes dictate weight. Attempting to eat less merely slows metabolism, having people as chubby as ever. This is the fatlash movement that causes America’ s slimming industry so much pain. In his book Bin Fat Lies(Ballantine, 19%), Glenn Gaesser says that no study yet has convincingly shown that weight is an independent cause of health problems. Fatness does not kill people; things like hypertension, coronary heart diseases and cancer do. Michael Fumento, author of The Fat of the Land(Viking, 1997), an anti-fatlash diatribe, compares Dr Gaesser’ s logic with saying that the guillotine did not kill Louis XVI: Rather, it was the severing of his vertebrae, the cutting of all the blood vessels in his neck, and... the trauma caused by his head dropping several feet into a wicker basket. Being fat kills in several ways. It makes people far more likely to suffer from heart disease or high blood pressure. Even moderate obesity increases the chance of contracting diabetes. Being 40% overweight makes people 30% ~ 50% more likely to die of cancer, according to the American Cancer Society. Extreme fatness makes patients so much less likely to survive surgery that many doctors refuse to operate until they slim. The idea that being overweight is caused by obesity genes is not wholly false: researchers have found a number of genes that appear to make some people burn off energy at a slower rate. But genes are not destiny. The difference between someone with a genetic predisposition to gain weight and someone without appears to be roughly 40 calories—or a spoonful of mayonnaise—a day. An alternative fatlash argument, advanced in books such as Dean Onrush’ s Eat More, Weight Less(Harper Collies, 1993)and Date Atrens’ s Don’ t Diet(William Morrow, 1978), is that fatness is not a matter of eating too much. They note that as Americans’ weight has ballooned over the last few decades, their reported caloric intake has plunged. This simply explains people’ s own recollection of how much they eat is extremely unreliable. And as they grow fatter, people feel guilty and are more likely to fib about how much they eat. All reputable studies show that eating less and exercising reduce weight. Certainly, the body’ s metabolism slows a little when you lose weight, because it takes less energy to carry less bulk around, and because dieting can make the body fear it is about to starve. But a sensible low-fat diet makes weight loss possible. The fatlash movement is dangerous, because slimmers will often find any excuse to give up. To tell people that it is healthy to be obese is to encourage them to live sick and die young.

The man behind this notion, Jack Maple, is a dandy who affects dark glasses, homburgs(翘边帽)and two-toe shoes;yet he has become something of a legend in America’s police departments. For some years, starting in New York and moving on to high-crime spots such as New Orleans and Philadelphia, he and his business partner, John Linder have marketed a two-tier system for cutting crime. First, police departments have to sort themselves out; root out corruption, streamline their bureaucracy, and make more contact with the public. Second, they have to adopt a computer system called Comstat which helps them to analyze statistics of all major crimes. These are constantly keyed into the computer, which then displays where and when they have occurred on a color-coded map, enabling the police to monitor crime trends as they happen and to spot high-crime areas. In New York, Comstat’s statistical maps are analyzed each week at a meeting of the city’s police chief and precinct captains. Messrs Maple and Linder(“specialists in crime-reduction services“)have no doubt that their system is a main contributor to the drop in crime. When they introduced it in New Orleans in January 1997, violent crime dropped by 22% in a year;when they merely started working informally with the police department in Newark, New Jersey, violent crime fell by 13%. Police departments are now lining up to pay as much as $50, 000 a month for these two men to put them straight. Probably all these new policies and bits of technical wizardry, added together, have made a big difference to crime. But there remain anomalies that cannot be explained, such as the fact that crime in Washington D. C. , has fallen as fast as anywhere, although the police department has been corrupt and hopeless and, in large stretches of the city, neither police nor residents seem disposed to fight the criminals in their midst. The more important reason for the fall in crime rates, many say, is a much less sophisticated one. It is a fact that crime rates have dropped as the imprisonment rate soared. In 1997 the national incarceration rate, at 645 per 100, 000 people was more than double the rate in 1985, and the number of inmates in city and county jails rose by 9. 4% , almost double its annual average increase since 1990. Surely some criminologists argue, one set of figures is the cause of the other. It is precise because more people are being sent to prison, they claim that crime rates are falling. A 1993 study by the National Academy of Sciences actually concluded that the tripling of the prison population between 1975 and 1989 had lowered violent crime by 10-15%. Yet cause and effect may not be so obviously linked. To begin with, the sale and possession of drugs are not counted by the FBI in its crime index, which is limited to violent crimes and crimes against property. Yet drug offences account for more than a third of the recent increase in the number of those jailed;since 1980, the incarceration rate for drug arrests has increased by 1, 000%. And although about three-quarters of those going to prison for drug offences have committed other crimes as well, there is not yet a crystal-clear connection between filling the jails with drug-pushers and a decline in the rate of violent crime. Again, though national figures are suggestive, local ones diverge; the places where crime has dropped most sharply(such as New York City)are not always the places where incarceration has risen fastest.

The issue of online privacy in the Internet age found new urgency following the Sept. 11 terrorist attacks, sparking debate over striking the correct balance between protecting civil liberties and attempting to prevent another tragic terrorist act. While preventing terrorism certainly is of paramount importance, privacy rights should not be deemed irrelevant. In response to the attacks, Congress quickly passed legislation that included provisions expanding rights of investigators to intercept wire, oral and electronic communications of alleged hackers and terrorists. Civil liberties groups expressed concerns over the provisions and urged caution in ensuring that efforts to protect our nation do not result in broad government authority to erode privacy rights of U. S. citizens. Nevertheless, causing further concern to civil liberties groups, the Department of Justice proposed exceptions to the attorney-client privilege. On Oct. 30, Attorney General John Ashcroft approved an interim agency rule that would permit federal prison authorities to monitor wire and electronic communications between lawyers and their clients in federal custody, including those who have been detained but not charged with any crime, whenever surveillance is deemed necessary to prevent violence or terrorism. In light of this broadening effort to reach into communications that were previously believed to be “off-limits“, the issue of online privacy is now an even more pressing concern. Congress has taken some legislative steps toward ensuring online privacy, including the Children’ s Online Privacy Protection Act, and provided privacy protections for certain sectors through legislation such as the Financial Services Modernization Act. The legislation passed to date does not, however, provide a statutory scheme for protecting general online consumer privacy. Lacking definitive federal law, some states passed their own measures. But much of this legislation is incomplete or not enforced. Moreover, it becomes unworkable when states create different privacy standards; the Internet does not know geographic boundaries, and companies and individuals cannot be expected to comply with differing, and at times conflicting, privacy rules. An analysis earlier this year of 751 U. S. and international Web sites conducted by Consumers International found that most sites collect personal information but fail to tell consumers how that data will be used, how security is maintained and what rights consumers have over their own information. At a minimum, Congress should pass legislation requiring Web sites to display privacy policies prominently, inform consumers of the methods employed to collect client data, allow customers to opt out of such data collection, and provide customer access to their own data that has already been collected. Although various Internet privacy bills were introduced in the 107th Congress, the focus shifted to expanding government surveillance in the wake of the terrorist attacks. Plainly, government efforts to prevent terrorism are appropriate. Exactly how these exigent circumstances change the nature of the online privacy debate is still to be seen.

Supermarket shoppers have never been more spoilt for choice. But just when we thought traditional systems of selective farming had created the most tempting array of foods money can buy, we are now being presented with the prospect of genetically created strains of cabbages, onion, tomato, potato and apple. It may not tickle the fancy of food purists but it fires the imagination of scientists. Last week they discovered that the classic Parisian mushroom contains just the properties that, when genetically mixed with a wild strain of mushroom from the Sonora desert in California, could help it grow en masse while at the same time providing it with the resilience of the wild strain. 【R1】______ “ We have found a way of increasing the success rate from one to 90 per cent. This is just one of the many products that, according to skeptics, are creating a generation of “Frankenfoods“. The first such food that may be consumed on a wide scale is a tomato which has been genetically manipulated so that it does not soften as it ripens. 【R2】______ Critics say that the new tomato—which cost $ 25 million to research—is designed to stay on supermarket shelves for longer. It has a ten-day life span. Not surprisingly, every-hungry US is leading the search for these forbidden fruit. By changing the genes of a grapefruit, a grower from Texas has created a sweet, red, thin-skinned grapefruit expected to sell at a premium over its California and Florida competitors. For chip fanatics who want to watch their waist-lines, new high-starch, low-moisture potatoes that absorb less fat when fried have been created, thanks to a gene from intestinal bacteria. The scientists behind such new food argue that genetic engineering is simply an extension of animal and plant breeding methods and that by broadening the scope of the genetic changes that can be made, sources of food are increased. Accordingly , they argue, this does not inherently lead to foods that are less safe than those developed by conventional techniques. But if desirable genes are swapped irrespective of species barriers, could things spiral out of control? “Knowledge is not toxic, “said Mark Cantley, head of the biotechnology unit at the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development , “ It has given us a far greater understanding of how living systems work at a molecular level and there is no reason for people to think that scientists and farmers should use that knowledge to do risky things. Clearly, financial incentive lies behind the development of these bigger, more productive foods. But we may have only ourselves to blame. In the early period of mass food commerce, food varieties were developed by traditional methods of selective breeding to suit the local palate. But as suppliers started to select and preserve plant variants that had larger fruit, consumer expectations rose, leading to the development of the desirable clones. Still, traditionalists and gourmets in Europe are fighting their development. 【R3】______ Even in the pre-packaged US, where the slow-softening tomato will soon be reaching supermarkets, 1, 500 American chefs have lent their support to the Pure Food Campaign which calls for the international boycott of genetically engineered foods until more is known about the consequences of the technology and reliable controls have been introduced. In the short term, much of the technology remains untested and in the long term the consequences for human biology are unknown. Questions have arisen over whether new proteins in genetically modified food could cause allergies in some people. 【R4】______ Then there are the vegetarians who may be consuming animal non-vegetable proteins in what they think is a common tomato, or the practicing Jew who unknowingly consumes a fruit that has been enhanced with a pig’s gene. As yet, producers are under no obligation to label “transgeneic“ products. Environmentalists worry that new, genetically engineered plants may damage natural environment. A genetically engineered pest-resistant strain of plant that contacts with a native strain, for example, could turn them into virulent weeds beyond chemical control. Animal welfare groups worry about the quality of life of farm animals manipulated so that they produce more meat, milk, and eggs but which may suffer physical damage in the process. 【R5】______ Many of these fears spring from ignorance. And although it is hard to separate the paranoia from the benefits, the fact remains that genetic engineering offers ways of solving serious medical and agricultural problems. A. Western farmers have already bred cattle with more muscle than a skeleton can carry. B. Supporters say the tomato, unsurprisingly called Flavr Savr, will taste better because it will be able to mature on the branch longer. C. Consumer opposition means that there are genetically manipulated foods on the German markets, and the Norwegian government has recently put research into genetically engineered foods on hold. D. For example, if a corn gene is introduced into a wheat gene for pest resistance, will those who are allergic to corn then be allergic to wheat? E. “ Mushrooms in the past were almost impossible to cross, “ says Philippe Callac, one of the three scientists working on the mushroom. F. Genetic engineering will interfere with the balance of nature.

With the widespread computers, there is an increase in the number of people making use of Internet. Some people believe that Internet will bring great benefits to people while others think Internet may cause depression. Write an article about it to clarify your own points of view towards this issue.

The speech is mainly about the organization of the company.Good morning! Um. . . As Managing Director of our company I’ve been asked to say a few words to you today about the way the company is organized. So what I’ve done is to make a sort of table. .. you know. . . to show how it is all arranged. It’s in your books. Can you find it? OK. Now, not all companies are organized in the same way, of course. They all have more or less the same bits and pieces, but they put them together in different ways. In fact, some Managing Directors are always changing the organization, which can be very disturbing for everybody else and sometimes causes awful hold-ups. Sometimes it’s necessary, of course, like when you start making something different or join up with another company or something. Anyway, I think the organization of my company is fairly typical, so let’s take a look at how we have organized it. At the top of the scheme, above me, is the Board of Directors. Their job is to administrate the company, make general policies, and so on. There are two kinds of directors, actually. One kind is what we call non-executive directors, which means that they are not full-time employees. They are the sort of people who have some standing in various parts of the business world and are in a position to help the company to succeed. They only appear when there are meetings of the Board, and some of them are on the boards of other companies at the same time. But the second lot of directors—the executive directors—are full-time employees of the company. Most of them are managers of our various departments, and you’ll be meeting them later. The absolute head of the company, of course, is the Chairman of the Board. He is appointed by the Board, and his job is to take the chair at meetings of the shareholders and the Board of Directors, and to represent the company’s interests at outside functions. He does not take much part in the running of the business. He leaves me to get on with the job. Mind you, not all chairmen are like that. Our last one was a real pain, always wanted everything done his own way and he kept on interfering. . . but anyway, that’s what the top slot in the scheme is for. Then there’s me, the Managing Director, or MD for short—as long as you don’t think I’m a doctor of medicine, ha ha. . . Um. . . Now, my job is to coordinate the policies decided by the directors and see that they are carried out. I do this through the various managers of departments—departmental managers. At the moment I’ve got six, and there are slots for them along the line underneath me in your scheme. I don’t think they are in any particular order, so we’ll start from the left and walk across. Actually, they’re all going to come and tell you about their jobs. So I’ll just say a few words. And. . . Right. The first one is. . . TRUE FALSE

Where can the expression “lame duck“ be heard?The expression, “lame duck“, can be heard in almost any American town or city, especially where people discuss politics. Most often, they use it to describe a politician who has come to the end of his power. There are a number of ideas as to where “lame duck“ came from, though the picture of a lame duck is clear enough: a duck that has had its wings cut, or its feet injured, and can no longer walk like a healthy one. The term seems to have come into the American language after the Civil War of 1861-1865. One explanation is that it came from the language of hunters who felt that it was foolish to waste powder or time on a dead duck. And a lame duck is close to being a dead duck. Another explanation, however, is that the expression came from England. There it was used to describe a man who lost all his money and could not pay his debts. He could do nothing but walk like a lame duck. And people showed little mercy for the poor fellow. But in the United States people took the phrase to describe congressman who failed to get re-elected but still had a little time left in office. Later, the expression was used in a broader sense, generally describing any man whose days of power were coming to an end. It has often been used to describe the position of an American president in the last two years or so of his second term. It is a difficult time for him, when Congress is ready to oppose him at every turn. Only among hunters. Among primary school pupils. Among beautiful ladies. Among people who are discussing politics.

What did the speaker talk about last time?Last time we started looking at the question of management and wondering what the term actually meant. Then we took a brief look at the concept of scientific management. You remember, we decided it was useful but not enough on its own. So today we’re going to look at another aspect—behavioral management. You may not really have come across this word “behavioral“ before, though I’m sure you are familiar with the word “behavior“. Behavioral simply means having to do with behavior. And that is our starting point for today: We are going to start by realizing that the activity of any organization is human activity, designed to achieve human goals. So we are really talking about human behavior. Any business concern does two things. First, it provides either goods or services that the customer needs. That is, it either makes things or does things for other people in exchange for money. Second, it provides people with work—and most of us have to work in order to make a living. Work, much as we may sometimes wish we didn’t have to do it, or not quite so much of it, has in fact two advantages. First—and I spoke about this last time—it can give us satisfaction. We can be proud of what we are doing—like a craftsman making something beautiful, or a doctor of a nurse helping people who are ill or in pain. This is what I called job satisfaction, and without it I am sure work can become an awful burden. And on a more basic level, work earns us money, which we can use to buy the things we need in order to live, like food and somewhere to live, as well as all the luxuries we could probably do without but still like to have. Behavioral management is based on a research of how people behave at work. It uses the findings of psychologists and sociologists, and so on. These make a study of individuals and groups to see what things influence the way they behave in different conditions. The results can then be used to design the best conditions in which people will perform—or behave—in the way that a manager wants them to in order to make a business more efficient and to achieve its goals. They have collected a lot of evidence and formulated a lot of theories to help the manager, and there is no doubt that properly understood and applied, this can be very useful. But still we return to the fact that people are individuals, all different from each other, and all—as we say—with minds of their own. So no matter what the manager knows about the way people behave in groups and so on, he has really to treat everyone on his staff as an individual in his own right. Of course, he can be helped in this by knowing how to encourage people to do things, how to stimulate them to behave in a certain way, and so on. A manager can himself be taught how to do this, but however unscientific this may sound, it is more likely that a good manager is born rather than trained. He has some natural ability to recognize what people are likely to do, what abilities they have, and other things like that. Realizing this, and then applying what he has learned about human behavior, is what makes someone a good manager. So behavioral management is management based on an assessment of an individual and the application of what is known about how people in general tend to behave. Like scientific management, it is undoubtedly useful, but not, the complete answer.

Psychologists take contrastive views of how external rewards, from【C1】______praise to cold cash, affect motivation and creativity. Behaviorists, 【C2】______research the relation【C3】______actions and their consequences argue that rewards can improve performance at work and school. Cognitive researchers, who study various aspects of mental life, maintain【C4】______rewards often destroy creativity【C5】______encouraging dependence【C6】______approval and gifts from others. The latter view has gained many supporters, especially【C7】______educators. But the careful use of small monetary rewards sparks【C8】______in grade-school children, suggesting【C9】______properly presented inducements indeed aid inventiveness, 【C10】______to a study in the June Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. “If kids know they’re working for a【C11】______and can focus【C12】______a relatively challenging task, they show the most creativity“ , says Robert Eisenberger of the University of Delaware in Newark. “But it’s easy to kill creativity by giving rewards for【C13】______performance or creating too【C14】______anticipation for rewards. “ A teacher【C15】______continually draws attention to rewards or who hands【C16】______high grades for ordinary achievement ends up【C17】______discouraged students, Eisenberger holds.【C18】______an example of the latter point, he notes growing efforts at major universities to tighten grading standards and restore failing【C19】______. In earlier grades, the use of so-called token economies, in【C20】______students handle challenging problems and receive performance-based points toward valued rewards, shows promise in raising effort and creativity, the Delaware psychologist claims.

A = BOOK 1 B = BOOK 2 C = BOOK 3 D = BOOK 4 Which book(s)say(s)that... the climate affects the future sustainable agricultural development? 【P1】______ environmental control is related with the national revenues? 【P2】______ the environmental problems are not caused overnight? 【P3】______ a variety of species are on the decrease? 【P4】______ agriculture is also a factor for the degradation of environment? 【P5】______ pollution can be controlled by increasing the production cost of polluting goods? 【P6】______ pollution control needs the support of technology and techniques? 【P7】______ provides lessons for agriculture, trade, land use and tax policy from an economic perspective? 【P8】______ the degradation of environment causes the change of climate? 【P9】______ the approaches to research should be adjusted to the changing situation? 【P10】______ A BOOK 1 The book offers a comprehensive perspective on the consequences and possible policy solutions for climatic change as we move into the twenty-first century. It assesses the impact of potential feature global climate change on agriculture and the need to sustain agricultural growth for the economic development. The book begins by examining the role of international research institutions in overcoming environmental constraints on sustainable agricultural growth and economic development. The authors then discuss how agricultural research systems may be restructured to respond to global environmental problems such as climate change and loss of genetic diversity. The discussion then extends to consider environmental accounting and indexing, to illustrate how environmental quality can be included formally in measures of national income, social welfare and sustainability. The third part of the book focuses on the effects of and policy responses to climate change. Chapters in this part examine the effect of climate change on production, trade, land use patterns and livelihoods. They consider impacts on the distribution of income between developed and developing countries remain a major economic activity. Authors take on an economy-wide perspective to draw lessons for agriculture, trade, land use and tax policy. B BOOK 2 The ozone layer is threatened by chemical emissions; the climate is endangered from fossil and deforestation , and global biodiversity is being lost by reason of thousands of years of habitat conversions. Global environmental problems arise out of the accumulated impacts from many years’ and many countries’ economic development. In order to address these problems the states of the world must cooperate to manage their development processes together—this is what an international environmental agreement must do. But can the world’ s countries cooperate successfully to manage global development? How should they manage it? Who should pay for the process, as well as for the underlying problems? This book presents an examination of both the problem and the process underlying international environmental lawmaking: the recognition of international interdependence, the negotiation of international agreements and the evolution of international resource management. It examines the general problem of global resource management by means of general principles and case studies and by looking at how and why specific negotiations and agreements have failed to achieve their targets. The book is designed as an introductory text for those studying global environmental policy making and institution building. It will also be of interest to practitioners and policy makers and scholars in the areas of environmental economics and law. C BOOK 3 Industrialization to achieve economic development has resulted in global environmental degradation. While the impacts of industrial activity on the natural environment are a major concern in developed countries, much less is known about these impacts in developing countries. This source book identifies and quantifies the environmental consequences of industrial growth, and provides policy advice, including the use of clean technologies and environmentally sound production techniques, with special reference to the developing world. The developing world is often seen as having a high percentage of heavily polluting activities within its industrial sector. This, combined with a substantial agriculture sector, which contributes to deforestation, the erosion of the top soil and desertification, has led to extreme pressures on the environment and impoverishes the population by destroying its natural resource base. This crisis suggests that sound industrialization policies are of paramount importance in developing countries’ economic development, and calls for the management of natural resources and the adoption of low-waste of environmentally clean technologies. The authors consider the industrial sector as a pollutant to other sectors of the economy, and then focus on some industrial-specific pollutants within the manufacturing sector and some process-specific industrial pollutants. They conclude by reviewing the economic implications of promoting environmentally sound industrial development, specially adressing the question of the conflict or complementarily which may exist between environmental goods and industrial production. D BOOK 4 This is an important book which presents new concepts of the marginal cost of substituting non-pollutive for pollutive goods. Technically in its approach it complements the other literature in the field and will be a significant contribution to the understanding of microeconomic issues in pollution control. The book focuses on the three main concepts; substitutions in consumption, emission abatement and exposure avoidance. The first part considers the adjustment of the scope and combination of goods produced as a method for controlling pollution. The author argues that pollution is controlled by increasing the relative price of the polluting goods in the production process, thereby reducing demand and subsequent production of the goods. In the second part, the discussion is extended to include the possibilities of preventing or abating emissions in relation to three models: first, pollution prevention when non-polluting inputs and processes are substituted for pollutants; second, when a proportion of the polluting output is recycled rather than being discarded; and finally end-of-pipe abatement where additional technology is used. In conclusion, the author assesses the extent to which pollution damage is controlled by avoidance of emissions, with avoidance being modeled as an add-on technology with its own returns to scale.

Which of the following can be called as a “lame duck“ ?

When did this expression come into the American Language?

According to another explanation, where did this expression probably come from?