Some Things We Know About Language Many things about language are a mystery, and many will always remain so.But some things we do know. First, we know that all human beings have a language of some sort.There is no race of men anywhere on earth so backward that it has no language, no set of speech sounds by which the people communicate with one another.Furthermore, in historical times, there has never been a race of men without a language. Second, there is no such thing as a primitive language.There are many people whose cultures are undeveloped, who are, as we say, uncivilized, but the languages they speak are not primitive.In all known languages we can see complexities that must have been tens of thousands of years in developing. This has not always been well understood; indeed, the direct contrary has often been stated.Popular ideas of the language of the American Indians will illustrate.Many people have supposed that the Indians communicated in a very primitive system of noises.Study has proved this to be nonsense.There are, or were, hundreds of American Indian languages, and all of them turn out to be very complicated and very old.They are certainly different from the languages that most of us are familiar with, but they are no more primitive than English and Greek. A third thing we know about language is that all languages are perfectly adequate.That is, each one is a perfect means of expressing the culture of the people who speak the language. Finally, we know that language changes.It is natural and normal for language to change; the only languages which do not change are the dead ones.This is easy to understand if we look back-ward in time. Change goes on in all aspects of language. Grammatical features change as do speech sounds, and changes in vocabulary are sometimes very extensive and may occur very rapidly. Vocabulary is the least stable part of any language.

The committee comprises five persons. absorbs concerns excludes involves

Mary called me up very late last night. praised me visited me telephoned me waked me

Universities usually give diplomas or certificates to students who complete course requirements adequately. responsibly sufficiently patiently successfully

While we don’t agree,we continue to be friends. Because Where Although Whatever

Up to now,the work has been easy. So So long So that So far

The child’s abnormal behavior puzzled the doctor. funny frightening repeated unusual

His motive in coming was to find out the truth. reasons arguments targets stimuli

The interview took place around the kitchen table and was very casual. formal informal regular irregular

American Wedding “I do.“ To Americans, those two words carry great meaning.They can even change your life, especially if you say them at your own wedding.Making wedding vows is like signing a contract.Now Americans don’t really think marriage is a business deal.But marriage is a serious business. It all begins with engagement.Traditionally, a young man asks the father of his sweetheart for permission to marry her.If the father agrees, the man later proposes to her.Often he tries to surprise her by “popping the question“ in a romantic way.Sometimes the couple just decides together that the time is right to get married.The man usually gives his francee(未婚妻) a diamond ring as a symbol of their engagement.They may be engaged for weeks, months or even years.As the big day approaches, their friends will provide many useful gifts.Today many couples also receive advice during engagement.This prepares them for the challenges of married life. At last it is time for the wedding.Although most weddings follow traditions, there’s still room for individualism(个人主义).For example, the usual place for a wedding is a church.But some people get married outdoors in a scenic spot.A few even have the ceremony while sky-diving or riding on horseback! The couple may invite hundreds of people or just a few close friends.They choose their own style of colors, decorations and music during the ceremony.But some things rarely change.The bride usually wears a beautiful, long white wedding dress.She traditionally wears “something old, something new, something borrowed and something blue.“ The groom wears a formal suit. As the ceremony begins, the groom and his attendants stands with the minister, facing the audience.Music signals the entrance of the bride’s attendants followed by the beautiful bride.Nervously, the young couple repeats their vows. Traditionally, they promise to love each other “for better, for worse, for richer, for poorer, in sickness and in health.“ But sometimes the couple composes their own vows.They give each other a gold ring to symbolize their marriage commitment.Finally the minister announces the big moment: “I now pronounce you man and wife.You may kiss your bride!“ At the wedding reception, the bride and groom greet their guests.Then they cut the wedding cake and feed each other a bite.Later the bride throws her bouquet of flowers(花束) to a group of single girls.Tradition says that the one who catches the flower will be the next to marry.After the reception,many couples take a honeymoon,a one-to-two-week vacation trip,to celebrate their new marriage.

A.differs among animal species B.to psychological distance C.begin to attack D.to physiological distance E.distance between an animal and its enemy before fleeing F.distance between certain animal species before fleeing

Spacing in Animals 1.Any observant person has noticed that a wild animal will allow a man or other potential enemy to approach only up to a given distance before it flees.“Flight distance“ is the terms used for this interspecies spacing.As a general rule, there is a positive relationship between the size of an animal and its flight distance—the larger the animal, the greater the distance it must keep between itself and the enemy.An antelope will flee when the enemy is as much as five hundred yards a-way.The wall lizard’s flight distance, on the other hand, is about six feet.Flight is the basic means of survival for mobile creatures. 2.Critical distance apparendy is present wherever and whenever there is a flight reaction.“Critical distance“ includes the narrow zone separating flight distance from attack distance.A lion in a zoo will flee from an approaching man until it meets a barrier that it cannot overcome.If the man continues the approach, he soon penetrates the lion’s critical distance, at which point the cornered lion reverses direction and begins slowly to stalk the man. 3.Social animals need to stay in touch with each other.Loss of contact with the group can be fatal for a variety of reasons including exposure to enemies.Social distance is not simply the distance at which an animal will lose contact with his group—that is, the distance at which it can no longer see, hear, or smell the group—it is rather a psychological distance, one at which the animal apparently begins to feel anxious when he exceeds its limits.We can think of it as a hidden band that contains the group. 4.Social distance varies from species to species.It is quite short—apparently only a few yards— among some animals, and quite long among others. 5.Social distance is not always rigidly fixed but is determined in part by the situation.When the young of apes and humans are mobile but not yet under control of the mother’s voice, social distance may be the length of her reach.This is readily observed among the baboons in a zoo.When the baby approaches a certain point, the mother reaches out to seize the end of its tail and pull it back to her.When added control is needed because of danger, social distance shrinks.To show this in man, one has only to watch a family with a number of small children holding hands as they cross a busy street. A.Philosophical distance B.Flight distance C.Social distance is determined in part by the situation D.Critical distance E.Social distance F.Physical distance

Protection of Wildlife Demands for stronger protection for wildlife in Britain some hide the fact that similar are felt ill the rest Europe.Studies by the Council of Europe, of which 21 countries are members, have shown that 1 percent of reptile species and 24 percent of butterflies are in danger of dying out. European concern for wildlife was outlined by Dr.Peter Baum, an expert in the environment and nature resources division of the council, when he spoke at a conference arranged by the administrators of a British national park.The park is one of the few areas in Europe to hold the council’s diploma for nature reserves of the highest quality, and Dr.Peter Baum had come to present it to the park once again.He was afraid that public opinion was turning against national parks, and that those set up in the 1960s and 1970s could not be set up today.But Dr.Baum clearly remained a strong supporter of the view that natural environments needed to be allowed to survive in a peace in their own right. No area could be expected to survive both as a true nature reserve and as tourist attraction, he went on.The short view that reserves had to serve immediate human demands for outdoor recreation should be replaced by full acceptance of their importance as places to preserve nature for the future. “ We forget that they are the guarantee of life systems, on which any built-up area ultimately depends, “ Dr.Baum went on,“ We could manage without most industrial products, but we could not manage without nature.However, our natural environment areas, which are the original parts of our countryside, have shrunk to become mere islands in a spoiled and highly polluted land mass.“

Margaret Sanger and Birth Control Margaret Sanger, an American nurse, was the first to start the modern birth control movement in the United States.In 1912 she【C1】______publishing information about women’s reproductive (生殖的) concerns through articles and books.In 1914 Sanger was charged【C2】______violation of the Comstock Law, which federal legislation had passed in 1873 forbidding the mailing of sexy material【C3】______information about birth control and contraceptive (避孕的) devices. Though she was put in jail for these activities, Sanger【C4】______to publish and spread information about birth control.She and her sister Ethel Byrne opened the first of several birth control clinics in America on October 16, 1916, in Brooklyn, New York. The Comstock Law was rewritten by Congress in 1936 to【C5】______birth control information and devices. Many states had laws forbidding distribution or use of contraceptive devices but the constitutionality (合宪性) of these laws was increasingly【C6】______. In 1965, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that married people have the right to practice birth control without government intervention. In 1972, the court【C7】______ that unmarried people have the same right. Today there are more birth control options【C8】______,but overpopulation and unwanted pregnancies remain worldwide【C9】______. Having more children than one can support may lead【C10】______poverty, illness, and high death rates for babies, children, and women. The problem of teenage pregnancy is【C11】______.worse in the United States【C12】______ in almost any other developed country. Studies show that birth rates for women under 20 are higher in the United States than in 29 other【C13】______ countries. A detailed study suggested that the problem of teenage pregnancy in the United States may be【C14】______to less sex education in schools and lower availability (可获性) of contraceptive services and supplies to young people. This study【C15】______the view of people in the United States who argue that sex education or making contraceptive supplies available to school-age children promotes sexual activity.

What were the consequences of the decision she had made? reasons results causes bases

It’s impolite to cut in when two persons are holding a conversation. leave talk loudly stand up interrupt

The price of vegetables varies according to the weather. jumps rises falls changes

Ants as a Barometer of Ecological Change At picnics, ants are pests.But they have their uses.In industries such as mining,farming and forestry, they can help gauge (测定) the health of the environment by just crawling around and being antsy(坐立不安). It has been recognized for decades that ants—which are highly sensitive to ecological change—can provide a near-perfect barometer(气压计) of the state of an ecosystem.Only certain species,for instance, will continue to thrive at a forest site that has been cleared of trees.【B1】______And still others will move in and take up residence. By looking at which species populate a deforested area, scientists can determine how “stressed“the land is.【B2】______Ants are used simply because they are so common and comprise(构成) so many species. Where mine sites are being restored, for example, some ant species will recolonize(重新移居到……) the stripped land more quickly than others.【B3】______Australian mining company Capricorn Coal Management has been successfully using ant surveys for years to determine the rate of recovery of land that it is replanting near its German Creek mine in Queensland. Ant surveys also have been used with mine-site recovery projects in Africa and Brazil,where warm climates encourage dense and diverse ant populations.“ We found it worked extremely well there,“says Jonathan Major, a professor of environmental biology.Yet the surveys are perfectly suited to climates throughout Asia,he says,because ants are so common throughout the region.As Major puts it:“That’s the great thing about ants.“ Ant surveys are so highly regarded as ecological indicators(指示器) that governments worldwide accept their results when assessing(评估) the environmental impact of mining and tree harvesting.【B4】______. Why not? Because many companies can’t afford the expense or the laboratory time needed to sift(详审) results for a comprehensive survey.The cost stems, also, from the scarcity(缺乏) of ant specialists.【B5】______ A.This allowed scientists to gauge the pace and progress of the ecological recovery. B Yet in other businesses, such as fanning and property development, ant surveys aren’t used widely. C.Employing those people are expensive. D.They do this by sorting the ants, counting their numbers and comparing the results with those of earlier surveys. E.The evolution of ant species may have a strong impact on our ecosystem. F.Others will die out for lack of food.

The girl is gazing at herself in the mirror. staring laughing shouting smiling

Some desirable changes have taken place in this town. identical uncertain frequent satisfactory

The chemical is deadly to rats but safe to cattle. fatal hateful good useful

According to the author, language changes are most likely to occur in______.

Which of the following statements is CORRECT?

The author has used American Indian languages as an example to show that they are

According to the author, people of undeveloped cultures can have______languages.

In the second paragraph the passage tells us that______.