Being the founder of the Internet’s largest encyclopaedia means Jimmy Wales gets a lot of bizarre emails. There are correspondents who assume he wrote Wikipedia himself and is therefore an expert on everything—like the guy who found some strange chemicals in his late grandfather’s attic and wanted Wales to tell him what to do with them. There are kooks who claim to have found, say, a 9,000-year-old fifteen-foot human skeleton and wonder if Wales would be interested. But the emails that make him laugh out loud come from concerned newcomers who didn’t know even the basic function of Wikipedia and have just discovered they have total freedom to edit a Wikipedia entry at the click of a button. “Oh my God,“ they write, “you’ve got a major security flaw. [*] Wikipedia is a free open-source encyclopaedia, which basically means that anyone can log on and add to it or edit it. And they do. It has a stunning 1. 5 million entries in seventy-six languages—and counting. Academics are upset by what they see as info anarchy. An Encyclopaedia Britanica editor once likened Wikipedia to a public toilet seat because you don’t know who used it last. Loyal users claim that collaboration improves articles over time. But what exactly is a wiki and how does it work? Wikis are deceptively simple pieces of software that you can download for free. You then use them to set up a website that can be edited by anyone you like. Need to solve a thorny business problem overnight and all the members of your team are in different time zones? Start a wiki. Wikipedia is the cumulative work of 16, 000 people, the bulk of it done by a hard-core group of around 1,000 volunteers. Its 500, 000 entries in English alone make it far larger than the Encyclopaedia Britannica. And Wales pays just one employee who keeps the servers ticking. Naturally there are a lot of idiots, vandals and fanatics, who take advantage of Wikipedia’s open system to deface, delete or push one-sided views. Sometimes extreme action has to be taken. For example, Wales locked the entries on John Kerry and George W. Bush for most of the 2004 Presidential election campaign. But for the most part, the geeks have a huge advantage: they care more. According to an MIT study, obscene comments randomly inserted on Wikipedia are removed within 100 seconds, on average. Vandals might as well as be spray-painting walls with disappearing ink. As for edit wars, in which two geeks with opposing views delete each other’s assertions over and over, well, they’re not much of a problem these days. All kinds of viewpoints co-exist in the same article. Take the entry on Wikipedia: “Wikipedia has been criticized for a perceived lack of reliability, comprehensiveness and authority. “ Indeed, Larry Sanger, Wikipedia’s former editor-in-chief(now a university lecturer), still loves the site but thinks his fellow professionals have a point. “ The wide-open nature of the Internet encourages people to disregard the importance of expertise ,“ he says. Sanger doesn’t let his students use Wikipedia for their papers, partly because he knows they could confirm anything they like by adding it themselves.

[*] Every year since 1998, Fortune Magazine has published a list of the “100 Best Companies to Work For“. How does the magazine choose the companies? Firstly, it uses a survey. 350 employees answer fifty-seven questions about their company. Secondly, Fortune Magazine looks at important features of companies: for example, pay, benefits, and communication between workers and management. Finally, the magazine compares the results to find its Top 100. To a certain extent, the results are guesswork, but the companies on the list, by and large, have many things in common: they pay their employees well, they allow workers to make decisions, and they offer a comfortable workplace. Broadly speaking, however, the winners tend to offer something a-bove and beyond the norm. J. M. Smucker, a jam and jelly company, gives its workers free muffins and bagels for breakfast: at Griffin Hospital, employees get free massages: a bank called First Horizon National gives its employees time off to visit their children’s classrooms. Wegmans Food Markets sent one worker on a ten-day trip to London, Paris and Italy to learn about cheese. This is not unusual for the New York-based company, which is well-known for the scholarships it gives its employees to further their education. At W. L. Gore, workers decide on their colleagues’ salaries. Surprisingly enough, the most important thing for employees is not money. It is freedom to develop ideas. Timberland offers a six-month paid sabbatical for employees who have “a personal dream that benefits the community“. Let’s not forget that all these companies are businesses whose priority is making money. They have to make a profit. And do they? Seemingly, the answer is a big “yes“. The number one company on Fortune’s 2005 list, Wegmans, makes a fortune. The company, which has a motto, “Employees first, customers second“ , is one of the fifty largest private companies in the US, with annual sales of $ 3. 6 billion, according to Forbes magazine. Apparently, being good to your employees is no obstacle to making money. How much of Wegmans’ success is due to the company’s policies? “ Up to a point, the success is because of the freedom they give us,“ says one employee. “ On the other hand, no company gets rich just by being nice. Wegmans has great marketing strategies and it’s well-positioned within the community. I’ve been here for fifteen years. Looking back, I’d say that the company’s innovations for customers, such as the Shoppers’ Club electronic discount programme in the 90s, have been just as important as the benefits to staff. “ But the employee benefits are striking. Fundamentally, Wegmans believes in professional development. As well as scholarships, the company gives its employees business opportunities. For years, one employee made delicious cookies for her colleagues. Eventually, she started selling the cookies in Wegmans. “I just asked the manager,“ she says. “With hindsight, I should have asked earlier. I could have made more money!“ The staff’s freedom to make decisions is another thing you won’t find everywhere. Essentially, Wegmans wants its workers to do almost anything to keep the customers happy. Believe it or not, an employee once cooked a Thanksgiving turkey in the store for a customer because the woman’s turkey, bought in Wegmans, was too big for her oven. One manager says, “We’re a ＄3 billion company run by sixteen-year-old cashiers. “

Every year, millions of people want to lose weight or get into shape but lack the time or motivation to go to a fitness club or to do an exercise program at home on a regular basis. Many of these same people have probably considered hiring a personal trainer, a fitness professional who guides clients through individualized workouts. Most personal trainers work in fitness clubs, but some conduct business in their own private studios, or in the homes of their clients. The job of a personal trainer is to teach safe and effective exercise techniques that are designed for the specific needs and limitations of the client. A trainer can be hired for short-term or long-term periods, depending on the client’ s needs. Mark Jenkins is a personal trainer who has become famous for his work with the musicians Scan “P Diddy“ Combs. LL Cool J, Mary J Bilge, Missy Elliot, and Beyonce. He gets these superstars in shape for the rigors of performing nearly every night. [*] “I have built my reputation on getting my clients in their best-ever condition in the shortest length of time,“ Jenkins said. “Part of my success has to do with knowledge, motivational skills, and ability to connect , with people, but most of my success has to do with the state of mind of the person I am training. The truth about health and fitness is that you have to want to get off the bench and be a participant in life, not a spectator! This is my celebrity-training secret; I only take on clients who have this passion or are open to and truly desire change. In recent years, more people than ever have developed a fitness passion. In the United States, there is an ever-growing demand for fitness products and services, which is caused by a number of factors. For a start, there is an increasing population of people over age fifty-live who want to stay lit. In addition, the growing obesity problem among adults and children alike—a problem Jenkins can identify with—needs to be addressed. As a child, Jenkins was so overweight that other children tagged him with the nickname, “Suck in the Gut. [*] “ No one believed that fitness would be as huge a market as it is now , but being a fat kid, I knew there had to be a whole bunch of other fat kids like me with the same issues and problems.“ Jenkins said. “What people don’t realize is, not only is obesity a health problem, but it also affects your self-esteem, so it can quickly turn into a psychological problem as well.“ Finally, there is an acceptance among Americans that spending money on fitness is not only good but also a virtue. The demand for all things related to fitness has created a great demand for personal trainers, which is expected to increase 27 percent in the United Stales by the year 2016, according to the US Bureau of Labor and Statistics. It is a common misconception that a personal trainer is simply an exercise partner or a “cheerleader“ for a person who wants to get into shape. Becoming a personal trainer requires taking courses in anatomy, physiology, kinesiology, injury prevention, training techniques, an emergency techniques like CPR. It can take anywhere from six months to two years to become a certified trainer, depending on the program. There are a number of organizations that offer personal trainer certification, and some are better than others. Some programs, for instance, offer certification after the completion of online courses and do not require practical experience or an internship. Obviously, a program that requires more than just book knowledge will produce better-prepared and more knowledgeable trainers. Jenkins, for example, sharpened his personal training skills in the US Navy, helping a fellow cadet who was threatened with discharge for being too heavy. “He was my first ’victim, ’ “ Jenkins joked. If the trend for personal trainers continues as predicted, he will have many more. Many people in the US want to【75】______, but they lack the time or motivation. This is where personal trainers【76】______. Personal trainers teach effective exercise techniques as they guide clients through individualized【77】______. They design programs that【78】______ their clients limitations and fitness goals. One reason personal trainers are【79】______ is that America is suffering an obesity epidemic. People want to avoid labels like the one personal trainer Mark Jenkins was tagged with as a child: “ Suck in the Gut“. Personal trainers require extensive training before they become【80】______, The demand for personal trainers is expected to increase by 27 percent by the year 2016.

People are not generally aware of the popularity of pet ownership. Research shows that pets act as companions and protectors, stress relievers and in some cases help to foster family cohesion. While pets are traditionally associated with family-type households, they are just as important to households without children. In an era when the population is ageing and more people are living a-lone, pets can provide valuable relief from loneliness. Urban pet management has been the subject of extensive debate among veterinarians and those involved in local government for some time. Part of the reason is that people complain more readily about other people’s pets than ever before. Emphasis on urban consolidation has meant that smaller homes and back gardens and multi-dwelling developments not only discourage people from owning pets but also place greater demands on scarce public open space. Pet owners may face tougher restrictions from either their local council or resident management committee. The term “ socially responsible pet ownership“ has emerged to describe a set of responsibilities to which pet owners are now expected to adhere. It might be tempting to prescribe different pets for different types of housing. Some people already have firm views about pets and housing type, mostly in relation to dogs, e. g. that the only environment for a dog is in conventional detached housing or that a “big“ dog is only suitable in the country. However, suitability is as much dependent on the quality of space as it is on the quantity. A dwelling that overlooks areas of activity is ideal for pets because it increases the amount of stimulation that can be received from the property, e. g. dwellings that overlook a park or are adjacent to a busy street. This is one way to alleviate boredom and the negative behaviors that sometimes result. Preferably a dog should have access to some outdoor space. Open space is not essential for a cat provided an enriching environment is maintained indoors, e. g. a bay window or internal fernery. Ideally dogs should have access to all areas of open space on a property. On the whole a dog’s behavior is likely to be better if he or she can see the street. Although the dog may bark at passers-by in the street, there will be less likelihood of excessive barking that might arise through boredom. Providing a dog with surveillance of the street also enhances public security—a very positive benefit. With adequate fencing, a dog will be confined to the property. The standard paling fence will restrain almost all dogs. They are recommended for side and rear boundaries. Furthermore, all gates should be fitted with a return spring self-closing device. Cats are not as easily restrained as dogs as they are more agile and have quite different notions of territoriality. Mostly this does not create a problem, although difficulties may arise in environmentally sensitive areas where cats may prey on wildlife. It is recommended that cats be confined to the house at night for their own protection. Owning a pet brings with it responsibilities to which we are increasingly being called to adhere. It is hoped that the guidelines will encourage people to think about pets in decisions about residential and community development. If they do, pet ownership will not be prejudiced by the push for urban consolidation.

Our bodies depend on sleep to keep a number of delicately balanced systems running smoothly. Without it these systems become subtly off-key, which can eventually lead to more serious consequences. Although the odd broken night never hurt anyone, some sleep experts are now saying that even just an hour of missed sleep, night after night, can cause ill health. Persistent low-level fatigue is extremely common since insomnia may happen to one in three of us. The cause can lie in surrounding factors, such as an uncomfortable mattress or noisy neighbors. Some insomnia is temporarily caused by stress brought on by a forthcoming special event, such as an exam or pressure at work. How you feel can notoriously affect sleep, too. Anxiety, anger or resentment can all stop us from dropping off and one of the prime symptoms of depression is early morning waking. Sleep apnoea, a common disorder in which lapses in breathing cause a shortage of oxygen which in turn disrupts sleep, may need treating. Shift work, partying until the small hours and jet lag can also disrupt the body’s internal clock that tells us when to stay awake and when to sleep. Too much food, tea, coffee, cola or other stimulants can also be culprits. Physical illness such as pain from arthritis can be a factor, too, as can drugs such as those used to treat chronic illnesses like high blood pressure and asthma. Some of us simply need to make sure that the bedroom is a calm, pleasant place conducive to sleep and avoid daytime naps. And last but not least, anxiously lying awake worrying about not sleeping can cause what the doctors call psycho-physiological insomnia. Whatever the cause, fatigue can have devastating effects on all aspects of our lives. And new US research offers some clues as to further effects of this disturbance to the body’s natural rhythms. Perhaps the greatest risk could be the effect on the immune system. The research shows that loss of sleep can slow down the action of cells which are involved in fighting off infection and even protecting us against more serious diseases such as cancer. What isn’t known, however, is whether one or two broken nights can have a long-term effect. People who suffer from long periods of stress, for example after a bereavement, seem to be more vulnerable to illness, which suggests that lack of sleep may be a factor. American research also suggests that lack of sleep can make you want to eat too much! Nurses on the overnight shift gained more than those on the evening shift, suggesting that the greater the disruption in sleep patterns, the greater the tendency to overeat and thus gain weight. Lack of sleep may even contribute to or speed up the ageing process. During sleep the body produces a hormone which is vital for growth and cell renewal. Without enough sleep this rejuvenation time is lost. It comes as no surprise that the period in life when we sleep most—as babies and toddlers—is the period of greatest growth. Complete the summary below with information from the passage, using no more than five words for each blank. Enough sleep is crucial for people to keep healthy. Insomnia is caused by many factors, such as【R1】______, stress and people’s special feelings. People may need to see a doctor when sleep apnoea takes place. Sleep apnoea disrupts sleep because of lapses in breathing resulting from【R2】______. Fatigue also can have devastating effects on all aspects of our lives, especially on【R3】______. Although staying up late from time to time is not yet proved to be harmful in the long run, lack of sleep may stimulate people to【R4】______, put on more weight and accelerate 【R5】______.

What do people find out when they discover they have total freedom to edit a Wikipedia entry?

What are academics dissatisfied with about Wikipedia?

What can people do with wikis?

What’s the purpose of the extreme action taken by Wikipedia?

What does Wikipedia tend to encourage people to do according to Larry Sanger?