Because early man viewed illness as divine punishment and healing as purification, medicine and religion were inextricably linked for centuries. This notion is apparent in the origin of our word “pharmacy, “ which comes from the Greek pharmakon, meaning “purification through purging.“ By 3500 B.C., the Sumerians in the Tigris-Euphrates Valley had developed virtually all of our modern methods of administering drugs. They used gargles, inhalations, pills, lotions, ointments, and plasters. The first drug catalog, or pharmacopoeia, was written at that time by an unknown Sumerian physician. Preserved in cuneiform script on a single clay tablet are the names of dozens of drugs to treat ailments that still afflict us today. The Egyptians added to the ancient medicine chest. The Ebers papyrus, a scroll dating from the 1900 B.C. and named after the German Egyptologist George Ebers, reveals the trial-and-error know-how acquired by early Egyptian physicians. To relieve indigestion, a chew of peppermint leaves and carbonates (known today as antacids) was prescribed, and to numb the pain of tooth extraction, Egyptian doctors temporarily stupefied a patient with ethyl alcohol. The scroll also provides a rare glimpse into the hierarchy of ancient drug preparation. The “chief of the preparers of drugs“ was the equivalent of a head pharmacist, who supervised the “collectors of drugs, “ field workers who gathered essential minerals and herbs. The “preparers’ aides, “ (technicians) dried and pulverized ingredients, which were blended according to certain formulas by the “preparers.“ And the “conservator of drugs“ oversaw the storehouse where local and imported mineral, herb and animal-organ ingredients were kept. By the 7th century B.C., the Greeks had adopted a sophisticated mind-body view of medicine. They believed the physician must pursue the diagnosis and treatment of the physical (body) causes of disease within a scientific framework, as well as cure the supernatural (mind) components involved. Thus, the early Greek physician emphasized something of a holistic approach to health, even if the suspected “mental“ causes of disease were not recognized as stress and depression, but interpreted as curses from displeased deities. The modern era of pharmacology began in the 16th century, ushered in by the first major discoveries in chemistry. The understanding of how chemicals interact to produce certain effects within the body would eventually remove much of the guesswork and magic from medicine. Drugs had been launched on a scientific course, but centuries would pass before superstition was displaced by scientific fact. One major reason was that physicians, unaware of the existence of disease-causing pathogens, continued to dream up imaginary causative evils. And though new chemical compounds emerged, their effectiveness in treating disease was still based largely on trial and error. Many standard, common drugs in the medicine chest were developed in this trial-and-error environment. Such is the complexity of disease and human biochemistry that even today, despite enormous strides in medical science, many of the latest sophisticated additions to our medicine chest shelves were accidental finds.

The author cites the Greek word “pharmakon“ underlined in Paragraph 1 to______.

A．stress the mental and physical causes of disease

B．emphasize the early nature of Greek medical science

C．point out that many of the beliefs of early man are still held today

D．illustrate that early man thought healing illness was linked to purification

It is possible to identify a number of early Sumerian drugs because______.

A．a European pharmacopoeia contained detailed recipes for ancient drugs

B．a list of drugs was written by an unknown Sumerian physician

C．the ancient Egyptians adopted the same medications

D．Sumerian religious books explained many drug-making techniques

According to Paragraph 2, which of the following is a similarity between ancient Sumerian drugs and modern drugs?

A．Like modern drugs, ancient Sumerian drugs were used for both mental and physical diseases.

B．Both Sumerian drugs and modern drugs are products of complicated chemical research.

C．The way patients could take drugs is the same.

D．The ancient Sumerian drugs were made of the same chemicals as the modern drugs.

The 7th-century Greek’s view of medicine differed from that of the Sumerians as the Greeks______.

A．developed most of the preparations of modern drugs

B．established a hierarchy for the preparation of drugs

C．adopted both the mental and physical root causes of illness

D．discovered more advanced chemical applications of drugs

In the last paragraph, the author makes the observation about scientific discovery that______.

A．chance events have led to the discovery of many modern drugs

B．trial and error is the best way to scientific discovery

C．most of the important discoveries have been made inattentively

D．many cures for common diseases have yet to be discovered

The passage indicates that advances in medical science during the modern era of pharmacology might have been delayed by______.

A．an inaccuracy in pharmacy preparation

B．a lack of good understanding of the origins of diseases

C．an overemphasis on the mental causes of diseases

D．a shortage of chemical treatment of disease

Which of the following can be the title of the passage?

A．The Greek Medical History

B．The Egyptian Pharmacological History

C．The Origin of Medicine

D．Development of Modern Medication

Large herds of grazing mammals are most likely to be found in a______. grassland terrace desert forest

The politician’s speech was______of nothing but a bitter railing. made formed composed included

When the first Europeans arrived in Australia, they found the continent already______by other people. abandoned populated migrated explored

University professors are frequently______to use multimedia materials in their classroom presentations. inspired trusted forced encouraged

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The researcher found that only a handful of troops of Yunnan snub-nosed monkeys remain, each______dozens of families, like a nomadic tribe. comprising formulating modifying dividing

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One possibility of supplying the world with clean, renewable energy is energy harvesting from ocean waves, which has been proposed as a means of offsetting a large portion of the world’s electrical energy demand. canceling exploring satisfying tackling

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Neither Lorillard nor the researchers who studied the workers in the east part of the country has been aware of any research on smokers of the Kent cigarettes. are aware of were aware of be aware of was aware of

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