After 1785, the production of children’s books in the Untied States increased but remained largely reprints of British books, often those published by John Newbery, the first publisher to produce books aimed primarily at diverting a child audience. Ultimately, however, it was not the cheerful, commercial-minded Newhery, but Anglo-Irish author 5 Maria Edgeworth who had the strongest influence on this period of American children’s literature. The eighteenth century had seen a gradual shift away from the spiritual intensity of earlier American religious writings for children, toward a more generalized moralism. Newbery notwithstanding, Americans still looked on children’s books as vehicles for instruction, not amusement, though they would accept a moderate amount of fictional 10 entertainment for the sake of more successful instruction. As the children’s book market expanded, then, what both public and publishers wanted was the kind of fiction Maria Edgeworth wrote: stories interesting enough to attract children and morally instructive enough to allay adult distrust of fiction, American reaction against imported books for children set in after the War of 1812 15 with the British. A wave of nationalism permeated everything, and the self-conscious new nation found foreign writings (particularly those from the British monarchy) unsuitable for the children of a democratic republic, a slate of self-governing, equal citizens. Publishers of children’s books began to encourage American writers to write for American children. When they responded, the pattern established by Maria Edgeworth was at hand, attractive 20 to most of them for both its rationalism and its high moral tone. Early in the 1820’s, stories of willful children learning to obey, of careless children learning to take care, of selfish children learning to “tire for others,“ started to flow from American presses, successfully achieving Edgeworth’s tone, though rarely her lively style. Imitative as they were, these early American stories wee quite distinguishable from their British 25 counterparts. Few servants appeared in them, and if class distinctions had by no means disappeared, there was much democratic insistence on the worthiness of every level of birth and work. The characters of children in this fiction were serious, conscientious. self-reflective, and independent-testimony to the continuing influence of the earlier American moralistic tradition in children’s books.What does the passage mainly discuss? The career of Maria Edgeworth as an author of children’s books The development of children’s literature in the United States Successful publishers of children’s books in Britain and North America Basic differences between British and American literature for children

She reads more slowly than the man does. She has a 1ot of material to read before she has coffee. The man does more work than is necessary. The man seems to be taking a long time preparing for philosophy class.

M: Do you want to the movies with on Saturday? W: Thanks, but I have to study my research project. I’m taking that same anthropology course you took with Prof. Grady. M: The one on ethnographic interviewing? Oh, good! I’m sure you’ll get a lot out of it. W: I have to admit the word ’ethnography’(人种学) scared me a little at first. It seems so technical. But then when she explained that it’s what anthropologists do, you know, how they investigate and record aspects of a culture, I didn’t seem so intimidating! M: Yeah, it’s all part of the fields work anthropologists conduct and it’s good to start doing that now before you become a graduate student and have to conduct large projects yourself. Who are you going to interview? W: You know the publishing office where I used to work? Vivian, the woman I worked for, she’s been a manager there for over 30 years and had seen a lot of changes in the industry. I thought I’d start out by interviewing her about how the people in the office interact with each other and with outside clients. M: Isn’t it funny how we use the thing that anthropologists study to foreign cultures and had the travel halfway across the world to do it? The best part of that course is that it shows you that ethnographic research can also be done on a familiar ground. W: Yeah. I got the idea from my project from reading Robert Marshal’s study of office life and I realized I already had some background in that. So far, I’m really enjoying this course. Which major the woman will be choosing. An anthropology course the woman is taking. How to find a job in publishing. Which anthropology professors the man recommends.

Let me warn you against a mistake that historians of science often make. They sometimes assume that people in the past use the same concepts we do. Here is a wonderful example that makes the use of history of mathematics some while ago. It concerns an ancient Mesopotamian(美索不达米亚人) tablet that has some calculations on it using square numbers. The calculations look an awful one like the calculations of the link of the sides of triangle. So that’s what many historians assume they were. But using square numbers to do this is a very sophisticated technique. If the Mesopotamians knew how to do it, as historians started thinking that they did. Well, they learn math with incredibly advanced. Well, it turns out the idea of Mesopotamians use square numbers to calculate the link of triangle’s sides is probably wrong. Why? Because we discovered that Mesopotamians didn’t know how to measure angles, which is a crucial element in the whole process of triangle calculations. Apparently the Mesopotamians had a number of other uses for square numbers. These other uses were important but they were not used with triangles. And so these tablets in all likelihood were practice sheets, if you like, for doing simpler math exercises with square numbers. In all likelihood, it was the ancient Greeks who first calculate the link of triangle’s sides using square numbers. And this was hundreds of years after the Mesopotamians. To explain how angles are measured. To prove that Mesopotamiansdid not know how to use square numbers. To discuss a mistaken historical interpretation. To explain why tablets are reliable historical records.

______, particularly the oxides of sulfur, greatly increases the rate at which rust forms. The presence of air pollutants Air pollutants are present Because the presence of air pollutants Air pollutants whose presence

The “confederation school” poets of nineteenth-century Canada were primarily nature poets, ______ a wealth of eulogies to Canadian rural life. and producing who they produced producing whose production of

Any acid can, in principle, neutralize any base, although ______ between some of the more reactive compounds. side reactions can occur the occurrence of side reactions can can side reactions occur side reactions that can occur

In 1978 the united States National Air and Space Administration selected Sally Ride______ the first woman astronaut. who being to be and being was

The languages spoken by early Europeans are still shrouded in mystery. There is no linguistic continuity between the languages of Old Europe (a term sometimes used for Europe between 7000 and 3000 B.C.) and the languages of the modem world, and we cannot yet translate the Old European script, Scholars have deciphered other ancient 5 languages, such as Sumerian, Akkadian, and Babylonian, which used the cuneiform script, because of the fortuitous discovery of bilingual inscriptions, When cuneiform tablets were first discovered in the eighteenth century, scholars could not decipher them. Then inscriptions found in baa at the end of the eighteenth century provided a link: these inscriptions were written in cuneiform and in two other ancient languages, Old Persian 10 and New Elamite--languages that had already been deciphered. It took several decades, but scholars eventually translated the ancient cuneiform script via the more familiar Old Persian language: Similarly, the hieroglyphic writing of the Egyptians remained a mystery until French troops unearthed the famous Rosetta stone in the late eighteenth century. The stone carried 15 the same message written in ancient Greek, Egyptian hieroglyphs, and Egyptian hieratic, a simplified form of hieroglyphs. The Rosetta stone thwarted scholars’ efforts for several decades until the early nineteenth century when several key hieroglyphic phrases were decoded using the Greek inscriptions. Unfortunately, we have no Old European Rosetta stone to chart correspondences between Old European script and the languages that 20 replaced it. Tim incursions of Indo-European tribes into Old Europe from the late fifth to the early third millennia B.C. caused a linguistic and cultural discontinuity. These incursions disrupted the Old European sedentary farming lifestyle that had existed for 3,000 years As the Indo-Europeans encroached on Old Europe from the east, the continent underwent 25 upheavals. These severely affected the Balkans, where the Old European cultures abundantly employed script. The Old European way of life deteriorated rapidly, although pockets of Old European culture remained for several millennia, ~ new peoples spoke completely different languages belonging to the Indo-European linguistic family. The Old European language or languages, and the script used to write them, declined and eventually vanished.What does the passage mainly discuss? Reasons for the failure to understand the written records of Old European culture Influences on the development of Old European script Similarities between Old European script and other ancient writing systems Events leading to the discovery of Old European script

The atmosphere that originally surrounded Earth was probably much different from the air we breathe today. Earth’s first atmosphere (some 4.6 billion years ago) was most likely hydrogen and helium--the two most abundant gasses found in the universe--as well as hydrogen compounds, such as methane and ammonia, Most scientists feel that 5 this early atmosphere escaped into space from the Earth’s hot surface. A second, more dense atmosphere, however, gradually enveloped Earth as gasses from molten rocks within its hot interior escaped through volcanoes and steam vents. We assume that volcanoes spewed out the same gasses then as they do today: mostly water vapor (about 80 percent), carbon dioxide (about ten percent), and up to a few 10 percent nitrogen. These same gasses probably created Earth’s second atmosphere. As millions of years passed, the constant outpouring of gasses from the hot interior--known as outgassing--provided a rich supply of water vapor, which formed into clouds. Rain fell upon Earth for many thousands or years, forming the rivers, lakes, and oceans of the world. During this Lime, large amounts of carbon dioxide were 15 dissolved in the oceans. Through chemical and biological processes, much of the carbon dioxide became locked up in carbon sedimentary rocks, such as limestone. With much of the water vapor already condensed into water and the concentration of carbon dioxide dwindling, the atmosphere gradually became rich nitrogen. It appears that oxygen, the second most abundant gas in today’s atmosphere, probably 20 began an extremely slow increase in concentration as energetic rays from the sun split water vapor into hydrogen and oxygen during a process called photodissociation. The hydrogen, being lighter, probably rose and escaped into space, while the oxygen remained in the atmosphere. This slow increase in oxygen may have provided enough of this gas for primitive 25 plants to evolve, perhaps two to three billion years ago. Or the plants may have evolved in an almost oxygen-free (anaerobic) environment. At any rate, plant growth greatly enriched our atmosphere with oxygen. The reason for this enrichment is that plants, in the presence of sunlight, process carbon dioxide and water to produce oxygen.What is the main idea of the passage? The original atmosphere on Earth was unstable. The atmosphere on Earth has changed over time. Hot underground gasses created clouds, which formed the Earth’s atmosphere. Plant growth depended on oxygen in the Earth’s atmosphere.

Now we’ve been talking about the revolutionary period in the United States history when the colonies wanted to separate from England. I’d like to mention one point about the very famous episode from that period, a point I think is pretty relevant even today. I’m sure you remember, from when you are children, the story of Paul Revere’s famous horseback ride to the Massachusetts countryside. In that version, he single-headily alerted the people that ’the British were coming’. We have this image of us solitary rider galloping（飞驰的）along of the dark from one farm house to another. And of course the story emphasized the courage of one man, made him a hero in our history books, right? But, that rather romantic version of the story is not what actually happened that night. In fact, that version misses the most important point entirely. Paul Revere was only one of the many riders helping deliver the messages that night. Just one part of a pre-arrange plan, that was thought out well in advance in preparation for just such an emergency. I don’t mean to diminish Revere’s role though. He was actually an important organizer and promoter of this group effort for freedom. His mid-night rider didn’t just go knocking on farm house doors. They also awaken the institutions of New England. They went from town to town and engage the town leaders, the military commanders and volunteer groups, even church leaders, people who would then continue to spread the word. My point is that Paul Revere and his political party understood, probably more clearly than later generations ever have, that political institutions are theirs a kind of medium for the will of people and also to both build on and support the individual action. They knew the success requires careful planning and organization. The way they went about the work that night made a big difference in the history and this country. The difficulties faced by the colonists. The skill of military heroes. The courage of one man. The cause of the Revolutionary War.

The Sun, the Moon, and Earth have magnetic fields, and______evidence that the stellar that extend through vast regions galaxies have fields of space. which is is because There is

About 42 million bushels of oats are used annually ______ manufacture of breakfast foods in die United States. the is the in the to

Pleasing to look at and touch, beads come in shapes, colors, and materials ______ to handle and to sort them. that almost compel one one compels that compel almost one is almost compelled

Adhesions are ______ formed within the body in response to inflammation or injury. that thin bands of scar tissue they thin bands of scar tissue when thin bands of scar tissue thin bands of scar tissue able to

Not until the 1850’s ______ a few public-spirited citizens and state legislatures seek to rescue historic buildings in the United States from destruction or alteration. both came did when

______ 200 bones forming the framework, or skeleton, of the human body. Being over There are over Where over Over

W: Hey Steve, got any plans for tonight? M: Hi, Jane. No, I don’t think so. Why? Got any suggestions? W: In fact, I do. I just got two tickets to the opening of the exhibit of the reprints by Julia Margaret Cameron. I would have to mention it earlier, but I was on the waiting list for these tickets and I wasn’t sure I’d even get them. M: An exhibit, huh? I like such things. But I don’t know who Julia…… W: Margaret Cameron! She was a photographer in the 1800s. She is interesting to art-historians in general and students of photography in particular because she ... how should I say, change the aesthetics for photography. M: What do you mean? W: Well, her specialty was portraits and instead of just making a factual record of details like most photographers did, you know, just capturing what a person look like in a dispassionate（平心静气的）thought of way. She, like a portrait painter, was interested in capturing her subject’s personality. M: Interesting! How did she do that? W: She invented a number of techniques that affect the picture. Like one of these things she did was blur images slightly by using a soft focus on the subject. That’s pretty common now. M: Yeah, seen that. Who did she photograph? W: Famous people of her day, Alfred Lord Tennyson, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Charles Darwin, I don’t know who else. We’ll see at the exhibition. M: You really pick my curiosity. I am going to enjoy this. A famous photographer. Photographic processes in the 1800’s. Photographic equipment used in the 1800’s. A new museum.

I’m going to pass this piece of amber around so you can see this spider trapped inside it. It’s a good example of amber-inclusion, one of the inclusions that scientists are interested in these days. This particular piece is estimated to be about 20 million years old. Please be extremely careful not to drop it. Amber shatters as easily as glass. One thing I really like about amber is its beautiful golden color. Now, how does the spider get in there? Amber is really fossilized tree resin. Lots of chunks of amber contain insects like this one or animal parts like feathers or even plants. Here is how it happens. The resin oozes out of the tree and the spider or leaf gets in cased in it. Over millions and millions of years, the resin hardens and fossilizes into the semiprecious(次珍贵的、准宝石的) stone you see here. Ambers can be found in many different places around the world. But the oldest deposits are right here in the United States, in Appalachia(阿巴拉契亚). It’s found in several other countries, too, though right now scientists are most interested in ambers coming from the Dominican Republic（多美尼加共和国）. Because it has a great many inclusions, something like one insect inclusion for every one hundred pieces. One possible explanation for this it that the climate is tropical and a greater variety of number of insects thrive in tropics than in other places. What’s really interesting is the scientists are now able to recover DNA from these fossils and study the genetic material for important clues to revolution. So they can feel its weight. So they can examine its contents. So they can guess its age. So they can admire its beautiful color.

The ancestors of the horse lived ______ and were about half a meter tall. years ago 60 million 60 million years ago ago 60 million years million years ago 60

The museum on Ellis Island, a former immigration station, contains documents and artifacts______ to four centuries of United States immigration. related them related related that be related

The publisher John Newbery is principally known for which of the following reasons?

The word “notwithstanding“ in line 8 is closest in meaning to ______.

The word “they“ in line 9 refers to ______.

The word “allay“ in line 13 is closest in meaning to ______.

It can be inferred from the passage that American children’s books sold before 1785 were almost always ______.

By the end of the eighteenth century, the publishers of children’s looks in the United States were most concerned about which of the following?

The word “permeated“ in line 15 ______.

According to the passage, American children’s stories differed from their British equivalents in that the characters in American stories were ______.

The word“ testimony to“ in line 28 is closest in meaning to ______.