Complete the sentences below. Write NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 21-26 on your answer sheet.

Complete the summary below. Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 36-40 on your answer sheet. Sobotka argues that big business and users of helium need to help look after helium stocks because 【R36】______ will not be encouraged through buying and selling alone. Richardson believes that the 【R37】______needs to be withdrawn, as the U.S. provides most of the world’s helium. He argues that higher costs would mean people have 【R38】______ to use the resource many times over. People should need a 【R39】______ to access helium that we still have. Furthermore, a 【R40】______. should ensure that helium is used carefully.

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-26 which are based on Reading Passage 2 below. We Know the City Where HIV First Emerged It is easy to see why AIDS seemed so mysterious and frightening when US medics first encountered it 35 years ago. The condition robbed young, healthy people of their strong immune system, leaving them weak and vulnerable. And it seemed to come out of nowhere. Today we know much more how and why HIV — the virus that leads to AIDS — has become a global pandemic. Unsurprisingly, sex workers unwittingly played a part. But no less important were the roles of trade, the collapse of colonialism, and 20th Century sociopolitical reform. HIV did not really appear out of nowhere, of course. It probably began as a virus affecting monkeys and apes in west central Africa. From there it jumped species into humans on several occasions, perhaps because people ate infected bushmeat. Some people carry a version of HIV closely related to that seen in sooty mangabey monkeys, for instance. But HTV that came from monkeys has not become a global problem. We are more closely related to apes, like gorillas and chimpanzees, than we are to monkeys. But even when HIV has passed into human populations from these apes, it has not necessarily turned into a widespread health issue. HIV originating from apes typically belongs to a type of virus called HIV-1. One is called HIV-1 group O, and human cases are largely confined to west Africa. In fact, only one form of HIV has spread far and wide after jumping to humans. This version, which probably originated from chimpanzees, is called HIV-1 group M (for ’major’). More than 90% of HIV infections belong in group M. Which raises an obvious question: what’s so special about HIV-1 group M? A study published last year suggests a surprising answer: there might be nothing particularly special about group M. It is not especially infectious, as you might expect. Instead, it seems that this form of HIV simply took advantage of events. ’Ecological rather than evolutionary factors drove its rapid spread,’ says Nuno Faria at the University of Oxford in the UK Faria and his colleagues built a family tree of HIV, by looking at a diverse array of HIV genomes collected from about 800 infected people from central Africa. Genomes pick up new mutations at a fairly steady rate, so by comparing two genome sequences and counting the differences they could work out when the two last shared a common ancestor. This technique is widely used, for example to establish that our common ancestor with chimpanzees lived at least 7 million years ago. ’RNA viruses such as HIV evolve approximately 1 million times faster than human DNA,’ says Faria. This means the HIV ’molecular clock’ ticks very fast indeed. It ticks so fast, Faria and his colleagues found that the HIV genomes all shared a common ancestor that existed no more than 100 years ago. The HIV-1 group M pandemic probably first began in the 1920s. Then the team went further. Because they knew where each of the HIV samples had been collected, they could place the origin of the pandemic in a specific city: Kinshasa, now the capital of the Democratic Republic of Congo. At this point, the researchers changed tack. They turned to historical records to work out why HIV infections in an African city in the 1920s could ultimately spark a pandemic. A likely sequence of events quickly became obvious. In the 1920s, DR Congo was a Belgian colony and Kinshasa — then known as Leopoldville — had just been made the capital. The city became a very attractive destination for young working men seeking their fortunes, and therefore also for sex workers. The virus spread quickly through the population. It did not remain confined to the city. The researchers discovered that the capital of the Belgian Congo was, in the 1920s, one of the best connected cities in Africa. Taking full advantage of an extensive rail network used by hundreds of thousands of people each year, the virus spread to cities 900 miles (1500 km) away in just 20 years. Everything was in place for an explosion in infection rates in the 1960s. The beginning of that decade brought another change. Belgian Congo gained its independence, and became an attractive source of employment to French speakers elsewhere in the world, including Haiti. When these young Haitians returned home a few years later they took a particular form of HIV-1 group M, called ’subtype B’, to the western side of the Atlantic. It arrived in the US in the 1970s, just as sexual liberation and homophobic attitudes were leading to concentrations of gay men in cosmopolitan cities like New York and San Francisco. Once more, HIV took advantage of the sociopolitical situation to spread quickly through the US and Europe. ’There is no reason to believe that other subtypes would not have spread as quickly as subtype B, given similar ecological circumstances,’ says Faria. The story of the spread of HIV is not over yet. For instance, last year there was an outbreak in the US state of Indiana, associated with drug injecting. The US Centres for Disease Control and Prevention has been analysing the HIV genome sequences and data about location and time of infection, says Yonatan Grad at the Harvard School of Public Health in Boston, Massachusetts. ’These data help to understand the extent of the outbreak, and will further help to understand when public health interventions have worked’. This approach can work for other pathogens. Last year, Grad and his colleague Marc Lipsitch published an investigation into the spread of drug-resistant gonorrhoea across the US. ’Because we had representative sequences from individuals in different cities at different times and with different sexual orientations, we could show the spread was from the west of the country to the east,’ says Lipsitch. What’s more, they could confirm that the drug-resistant form of gonorrhoea appeared to have circulated predominantly in men who have sex with men. That could prompt increased screening in these at-risk populations, in an effort to reduce further spread. In other words, there is real power to studying pathogens like HIV and gonorrhoea through the prism of human society. Questions 14-20 Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 2? In boxes 14-20 on your answer sheet, write TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSE if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this

Complete the flow chart below. Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 10-13 on your answer sheet. [*]

Complete the notes below. Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 7-9 on your answer sheet. Educational Characteristics of New Zealand - The field of study in which New Zealand excels is【R7】______ - Students can【R8】______. English as New Zealand is an English speaking country. - Educational standards are monitored by three【R9】______

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13 which are based on Reading Passage 1 below. Questions 1-6 Reading Passage 1 has six paragraphs, A-F. Choose the correct headings for each paragraph from the list of headings below. Write the correct number, i-ix, in boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet. Studying in New Zealand A A relatively small island with a population of less than a quarter of that of Tokyo, New Zealand has a huge overseas student population. With over half a million fee-paying foreign students, an ever-increasing range of academic, professional and vocational courses and English language services are being created or expanded. But why do so many people come from overseas to study in New Zealand? Primarily, there is the fact that it has an excellent education system, especially in English language teaching. With its many British connections as well as the adoption of language from America, New Zealand offers a very international language. Language students are also enticed to New Zealand as they can fully immerse themselves in the language. This is only possible in a country where English is the spoken language. B There are also strict government controls and standards on the quality of education offered. The government controls the education system, and it has appointed the New Zealand Qualifications Authority, a Ministry of Education and an Education Review Office, to license and control schools. These government bodies ensure that standards are as high in New Zealand as anywhere in the world. In addition, they decide whether or not language schools have the credentials and quality to operate. This allows students to have some peace of mind when choosing a school, but there are other reasons to choose New Zealand first. Independent reports have proven New Zealand to be the most cost-effective country in the western world for study fees, accommodation, cost of living, and recreation. It also has a reputation for safety and security, perhaps the best amongst western countries. Auckland City offers a multicultural and cosmopolitan place to shop, eat and be entertained. Less than an hour out of the city and you find yourself on beaches or mountains famous for their cleanliness and lack of pollution. C Although a majority of international students spend some time in a language school, for those aged 13 to 18 New Zealand secondary schools provide a broad education. Other students take advantage of one of the many tertiary education institutions which form the New Zealand polytechnic system. These institutions are state-funded and provide education and training at many levels, from introductory studies to full degree programmes. University education was established in New Zealand in 1870 and has a similar tradition to the British university system. There are eight state-funded universities in New Zealand, all of them internationally respected for their academic and research performance. In addition to a centrally coordinated system of quality assurance audits at both institution and programme level, each university undertakes internal quality checks. D All New Zealand universities offer a broad range of subjects in arts, commerce and science, but they have also specialised in narrower fields of study such as computer studies, medicine or environmental studies. Bachelor’s, Master’s and Doctorate degrees are offered by all New Zealand universities. A range of undergraduate and postgraduate diplomas are also available, along with Honours programmes (usually requiring an additional year of study). The first degree a student is able to gain in New Zealand is, as elsewhere, a Bachelor’s degree. With a completed Bachelor’s degree, a graduate may be able to go on to a number of other options. There are Postgraduate Diploma courses, Master’s degrees, Doctorates and even research positions available. E The Postgraduate Diploma course takes one year on a full-time programme and is designed for graduates building on the academic field of their previous degree. The Master’s degree, like the Postgraduate Diploma, builds on a Bachelor’s degree but can take up to two years, by which time a thesis must be completed. The Master’s is the conventional pathway to the next level of education — the Doctorate. For this course, graduates are required to produce a research-based thesis as part of a course that takes a minimum of two years, and is by far the most challenging. F Finally there is the possibility of research in New Zealand universities. Research is the main characteristic that distinguishes a university as opposed to a polytechnic or other tertiary education institution. New Zealand remains justifiably proud of the quality of its research as a large number of awards are presented to researchers from New Zealand universities. List of headings i Prestigious contribution ii Further education options iii Specialisation iv Cost of further education v Course requirements vi Overseeing authorities vii Postgraduate choices viii Why New Zealand? ix Government funding

Complete the sentences below. Write NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 21-26 on your answer sheet.

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40 which are based on Reading Passage 3 below. Helium’s Future Up in the Air A In recent years we have all been exposed to dire media reports concerning the impending demise of global coal and oil reserves, but the depletion of another key non-renewable resource continues without receiving much press at all. Helium — an inert, odourless, monatomic element known to lay people as the substance that makes balloons float and voices squeak when inhaled — could be gone from this planet within a generation. B Helium itself is not rare; there is actually a plentiful supply of it in the cosmos. In fact, 24 per cent of our galaxy’s elemental mass consists of helium, which makes it the second most abundant element in our universe. Because of its lightness, however, most helium vanished from our own planet many years ago. Consequently, only a minuscule proportion — 0.00052%, to be exact — remains in earth’s atmosphere. Helium is the by-product of millennia of radioactive decay from the elements thorium and uranium. The helium is mostly trapped in subterranean natural gas bunkers and commercially extracted through a method known as fractional distillation. C The loss of helium on Earth would affect society greatly. Defying the perception of it as a novelty substance for parties and gimmicks, the element actually has many vital applications in society. Probably the most well known commercial usage is in airships and blimps (non-flammable helium replaced hydrogen as the lifting gas du jour after the Hindenburg catastrophe in 1932, during which an airship burst into flames and crashed to the ground killing some passengers and crew). But helium is also instrumental in deep-sea diving, where it is blended with nitrogen to mitigate the dangers of inhaling ordinary air under high pressure; as a cleaning agent for rocket engines; and, in its most prevalent use, as a coolant for superconducting magnets in hospital MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scanners. D The possibility of losing helium forever poses the threat of a real crisis because its unique qualities are extraordinarily difficult, if not impossible to duplicate (certainly, no biosynthetic ersatz product is close to approaching the point of feasibility for helium, even as similar developments continue apace for oil and coal). Helium is even cheerfully derided as a ’loner’ element since it does not adhere to other molecules like its cousin, hydrogen. According to Dr. Lee Sobotka, helium is the ’most noble’ of gases, meaning it’s very stable and non-reactive for the most part. It has a closed electronic configuration, a very tightly bound atom. It is this coveting of its own electrons that prevents combination with other elements. Another important attribute is helium’s unique boiling point, which is lower than that for any other element. The worsening global shortage could render millions of dollars of high-value, life-saving equipment totally useless. The dwindling supplies have already resulted in the postponement of research and development projects in physics laboratories and manufacturing plants around the world. There is an enormous supply and demand imbalance partly brought about by the expansion of high-tech manufacturing in Asia. E The source of the problem is the Helium Privatisation Act (HPA), an American law passed in 1996 that requires the U.S. National Helium Reserve to liquidate its helium assets by 2015 regardless of the market price. Although intended to settle the original cost of the reserve by a U.S. Congress ignorant of its ramifications, the result of this fire sale is that global helium prices are so artificially deflated that few can be bothered recycling the substance or using it judiciously. Deflated values also mean that natural gas extractors see no reason to capture helium. Much is lost in the process of extraction. As Sobotka notes: ’The government had the good vision to store helium, and the question now is: Will the corporations have the vision to capture it when extracting natural gas, and consumers the wisdom to recycle? This takes long-term vision because present market forces are not sufficient to compel prudent practice’. For Nobel-prize laureate Robert Richardson, the U.S. government must be prevailed upon to repeal its privatisation policy as the country supplies over 80 per cent of global helium, mostly from the National Helium Reserve. For Richardson, a twenty- to fifty-fold increase in prices would provide incentives to recycle. F A number of steps need to be taken in order to avert a costly predicament in the coming decades. Firstly, all existing supplies of helium ought to be conserved and released only by permit, with medical uses receiving precedence over other commercial or recreational demands. Secondly, conservation should be obligatory and enforced by a regulatory agency. At the moment some users, such as hospitals, tend to recycle diligently while others, such as NASA, squander massive amounts of helium. Lastly, research into alternatives to helium must begin in earnest. Questions 27-31 Reading passage 3 has six paragraphs, A-F. Which paragraph contains the following information? Write the correct letter, A-F, in boxes 27-31 on your answer sheet.

Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading passage 3? In boxes 32-35 on your answer sheet, write YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer NO if the statement contradicts the views of the writer NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

Complete the sentences below. Write NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 21-26 on your answer sheet.

The same method as for HIV can also be used for______

It is said that outbreak in Indiana was related to

HIV has been transmitted rapidly throughout the US and Europe because of the

It was that made Belgian Congo a popular destination for employment to French speakers.

Within 20 years the virus managed to spread to cities 900 miles away with the help of the______

Scientists spotted Kinshasa as the origin of______